The Meaning and Usage of Jihad

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JIHAD: THE MEANING AND USAGE OF GREATER JIHAD & LESSER JIHAD

The main schools of Islamic theology include the extant of Mu’tazili, Ash’ari, Maturidi, and Athari schools, all Sunni, and the Ja’fari school, which is Shi’a. The following represents the teaching from each school on the subject of “Greater Jihad” and “Lesser Jihad.”

It is considered correct and common within Islamic tradition and scholarship to use the terms “greater jihad” (al-jihad al-akbar) and “lesser jihad” (al-jihad al-asghar) too distinguish between different aspects of the concept of jihad.

Meanings of the Terms

Greater Jihad (internal struggle): This refers to the more difficult and more important internal spiritual struggle against one’s own ego (nafs), selfishness, greed, temptations, and evil impulses. This form of jihad involves a personal effort to live a moral and pure life according to the Qur’an and the Five Pillars of Islam, including acts of devotion, studying the faith, and working for social justice.

Lesser Jihad (external struggle): This traditionally refers to external efforts, including defensive warfare, to protect the Muslim community (Ummah) from aggression or oppression. It can also encompass other external actions like speaking the truth and promoting good behavior in society.

Abu Hanifa (699-767 AD)

Abu Hanifa (aka: Nuʿmān ibn Thābit ibn Zūṭā ibn Marzubān) the founder of the Hanafi school of Islamic law, did not make an explicit distinction between “greater jihad” and “lesser jihad” using those specific terms in his core legal formulations. The concept of “greater jihad” (inner struggle against the ego) and “lesser jihad” (external warfare) was a later development in Islamic tradition that gained prominence through a specific hadith (saying of the Prophet Muhammad) cited in an 11th-century work.

The classical legal schools of thought (including the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali schools), which were largely formulated in the 8th and 9th centuries, primarily focused their juridical discussions on the rules and conditions related to the external, physical aspects of jihad, often referred to as qital (fighting/armed combat). These discussions outlined jihad as a collective obligation (fard kifaya) for the Muslim community under specific circumstances, such as self-defense or in response to aggression.

While Abu Hanifa himself did not use the terms “greater” and “lesser” jihad, the Hanafi school does value the internal spiritual struggle. Later scholars within the Hanafi tradition, particularly those influenced by Sufism, have acknowledged and emphasized the “greater jihad” as a crucial, ongoing, personal effort to live a righteous life according to the Qur’an and the five pillars of Islam, considering it the foundation for all other forms of striving.|-

The emphasis on the greater jihad as the primary struggle against one’s own desires and evil inclinations has been influential in various Muslim communities, especially within Sufi and reformist circles, and is seen as an important aspect of self-discipline and moral conduct.

The Hanafi school, like other Islamic schools, distinguishes between the “greater jihad” (internal struggle) and the “lesser jihad” (external struggle). The greater jihad is the internal, spiritual struggle against one’s own sinful desires and temptations, which is considered the most important form of jihad. The lesser jihad is the external, physical struggle or warfare, which is permissible only under strict conditions, such as self-defense.

Greater Jihad: The Internal Struggle

Definition: The greater jihad is the constant, lifelong struggle within oneself to follow God’s will, control one’s passions, and purify the soul.
Significance: It is considered the more important and constant form of jihad, as it is a struggle every Muslim faces daily.
Examples: This can include combating anger, hatred, greed, and other vices; speaking the truth; using one’s wealth for good purposes; and fulfilling one’s religious obligations.

Lesser Jihad: The External Struggle

Definition: It refers to the outward, physical struggle that defends Islam and the Muslim community from aggression.
Significance: It is considered a secondary form of jihad and is only permissible under specific, strict conditions.
Conditions:
- Self-Defense: It is primarily for the defense of Islam and Muslims.
- Last Resort: All peaceful means, such as diplomatic talks, must be exhausted first.
- Rules of Engagement: It must be conducted with strict rules of engagement, including not harming non-combatants and showing mercy.
- Authority: Only high-ranking religious leaders can declare a military jihad.

SUMMARY

Internal vs. External: The Hanafi school of thought emphasizes the spiritual and ethical dimension of greater jihad, aligning with the general Islamic tradition that the internal struggle is superior.
Historical Context: While historical Hanafi jurists have addressed the rules of warfare (lesser jihad) within the context of state and law, the greater jihad was understood as a continuous ethical and spiritual obligation for every individual.
Emphasis on Law: The Hanafi school’s focus on law and legal reasoning implies a strong emphasis on acting within a framework of justice and order, both externally and internally.

Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari (873-936 AD)

Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari, founder of the Ashari school of thought (like other Islamic schools), teaches that greater jihad is the internal, spiritual struggle against one’s own evil inclinations, while lesser jihad is the external, military struggle to defend their Muslim community from aggression. The greater jihad is considered more important and is an ongoing, lifelong battle for every Muslim to overcome personal sin and strive to live according to God’s will. Lesser jihad, or jihad of the sword, or is a conditional and strictly regulated form of physical defense against external threats.

Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari’s views on jihad come from the general principles of Islamic jihad such as the “greater jihad” of internal struggle and the “lesser jihad” of external defense, and are foundational to the broader Sunni tradition he helped shape. The results emphasize that jihad is a sacred struggle with a noble goal, not for personal gain or fame, and is primarily a defensive effort to uphold justice and God’s word.

Justification: External fighting is considered a sacred act only when it is for the purpose of establishing justice and curbing tyranny, not for spoils of war or glory.
Purpose: The ultimate goal of jihad is to make “the word of Allah supreme,” meaning to defend the faith and its followers.
Defensive Nature: The “lesser jihad” is primarily defensive. Aggression is forbidden, and one is not to attack those who are not fighting against them (this definition seems to be lost on today’s jihadists).
Respect for Peace: If an enemy offers peace, it is a command from Allah to accept it, and peace offerings should not be rejected for the sake of fighting.

Context and Importance of the Ash’ari School of Thought

Foundation of Sunni Theology: Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari was instrumental in establishing the Ash’ari school of theology, which became a dominant force in Sunni Islam.
Focus on Divine Attributes: Much of his work involved refuting the Mu’tazila school and establishing a theological framework based on the Sunnah and Hadith, making his approach central to the development of Islamic thought.
Influence on Jihad: His theological contributions provided the intellectual framework for how later Muslims understood and debated the concept of jihad, even though he did not write specific treatises on the topic of jihad.

Greater Jihad

Jihad of the Heart: The primary and most important struggle, focusing on combating the temptation of sin and the struggle against one’s own ego.
Examples: Overcoming anger, greed, and hatred; resisting temptations like alcohol; living a life in accordance with God’s will; and engaging in self-improvement.

Lesser Jihad

Jihad of the Sword: The physical, defensive struggle to protect the Muslim community from aggressors.
Strict Conditions: This type of jihad is only permissible under very strict conditions, including being in self-defense, not for conquest or conversion.
Rules: Must be called for by a religious leader, and it is forbidden to harm non-combatants, destroy property, or cause unnecessary suffering. The goal is to restore peace and show mercy.

Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853-944 AD)

Abu Mansur al-Maturidi, founder of the Maturidi school, view jihad as primarily a spiritual and moral struggle, or the “greater jihad,” against one’s inner self, and secondarily as an external struggle. His theology, which emphasizes reason alongside revelation, frames jihad as the “noble striving for truth and moral integrity” in a person’s inner life. This internal struggle is understood as more important than the external, physical aspect of the struggle.

Internal Greater Jihad

Spiritual and Moral: Maturidi viewed jihad as a striving for truth, moral integrity, and a journey of the heart, mind, and soul.
Combating One’s Self: This internal struggle is often linked to the concept of the “greater jihad,” where one fights against their own base desires and negative inclinations.

External “Lesser Jihad”

Struggle Against the Outer Enemy: The external, physical struggle (the “lesser jihad“) is considered secondary to the internal struggle.
Spiritual Elevation: Even the external aspect of jihad is viewed within the context of spiritual elevation and moral discipline, not as a standalone act of violence, as seen in ResearchGate.

Theological Framework

Reason and Revelation: Maturidi’s emphasis on using reason to understand faith is central to his view of jihad. He believed faith must be supported by rational conviction, so any striving (jihad) must be intellectually grounded, not blind or purely emotional.
Moral Responsibility: His theology teaches that humans are morally responsible for their actions due to free will, making the internal struggle against sin and wrongdoing a personal and moral obligation.

Maturidi, a prominent Islamic theologian, emphasized both internal and external forms of jihad, viewing the internal struggle against one’s own desires (“jihad of the self“) as the “greater jihad” that precedes the external struggle against an enemy. His theological framework, which integrates reason with revelation, supports this view by stressing that humans are morally responsible for their actions, making the internal struggle paramount to achieving one’s potential for understanding divine will.

Key Aspects of Maturidi’s View on Jihad

Greater Jihad: Maturidi viewed the “greater jihad” as the internal struggle against one’s own desires and the self, with a strong emphasis on moral and spiritual purification.
Lesser Jihad: The “lesser jihad” refers to the external struggle against enemies, which is considered secondary to the internal one.
Reason and Responsibility: Maturidi’s theology holds that humans are morally responsible for their actions, supported by their capacity for reason. This moral agency makes the internal battle to align one’s will with God’s will a crucial and foundational aspect of faith.
Internal Struggle as a Prerequisite: The internal jihad is seen as a necessary prerequisite for all other forms of struggle. A person who has not fought and overcome their own internal weaknesses cannot effectively engage in external struggles.
Other Forms of Jihad: While emphasizing the internal struggle, Maturidi also recognized other forms of jihad, such as speaking the truth to a tyrant, which involves using one’s voice or “tongue” as a tool for justice.

Greater Jihad: Maturidi viewed the “greater jihad” as the internal struggle against one’s own desires and the self, with a strong emphasis on moral and spiritual purification.
Lesser Jihad: The “lesser jihad” refers to the external struggle against enemies, which is considered secondary to the internal one.
Reason and Responsibility: Maturidi’s theology holds that humans are morally responsible for their actions, supported by their capacity for reason. This moral agency makes the internal battle to align one’s will with God’s will a crucial and foundational aspect of faith.
Internal Struggle as a Prerequisite: The internal jihad is seen as a necessary prerequisite for all other forms of struggle. A person who has not fought and overcome their own internal weaknesses cannot effectively engage in external struggles.
Other Forms of Jihad: While emphasizing the internal struggle, Maturidi also recognized other forms of jihad, such as speaking the truth to a tyrant, which involves using one’s voice or “tongue” as a tool for justice.

Anthari Theology

Atharis or Ahl al-Hadith are those who adhere to the creed of Athari theology, which originated in the 8th century AD from the Hanbalī scholarly circles of Ahl L-Hadith. The name derives from “tradition” in its technical sense as a translation of the Arabic word “Athar.” The Athari school is one of three schools of doctrine in Islam alongside the Ash’ari creed and the Maturidi creed. Atharis are against the usage of metaphorical interpretation such as regarding the revealed attributes of Allah, and they do not make attempts to conceptualize the meanings of the Qur’an in a rational manner.

The Atharis became affiliated with the Hanbalis throughout the years as their doctrxine originated from there, but they are also affiliated with Wahhabism and the Salafi movement.

Atharis, or followers of the Athari creed, were a school of Sunni Islamic theology that originated in the 8th century and is known for its strict literal interpretation of the Qur’an and Sunnah (the Prophet’s traditions). They emphasize the use of Athari (tradition or textual accounts) and reject the use of metaphorical interpretation or rationalistic analysis for verses about God’s attributes. This approach prioritizes textual purity and historical transmission over theological speculation and is closely associated with the Hanbali school of law, the Salafi movement, and Wahhabism.

Core Beliefs and Practices

Literal Interpretation: Atharis believe in interpreting the Qur’an and Sunnah literally without seeking to understand the “how” or modality of divine attributes like God’s hands, eyes, or coming down to the lowest heaven.
Rejection of Rationalization: They reject the philosophical methods and rationalistic interpretations used by other theological schools like the Mu’tazilitesand Ash’ans.
Source of Authority: They consider the Qur’an, Sunnah, and the consensus of the Prophet’s companions to be the sole sources of religious authority.òķ
Affiliations: The Athari creed is closely linked with the Hanbali school of law, which was developed by Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE). Over time, it has also become affiliated with the Salafi movement and Wahhabism.

Comparison with Other Theological Schools

Ash’ari and Maturidi: Unlike Atharis, the Ash’ari and Maturidi schools of Islamic theology use allegorical interpretation for certain verses of the Qur’an and engage in rational and philosophical methods.
Mu’tazilites: The Atharis emerged in opposition to the Mu’tazilite school, condemning many of their doctrines and philosophical methods.

Athari views on jihad are tied to the Athari creed, which emphasizes a literal and text-based understanding of Islamic scriptures, including the Qur’an and Sunnah. This approach involves affirming the outward meaning of texts concerning Allah’s attributes and actions, such as “fighting in the way of Allah,” without engaging in metaphorical or philosophical interpretation. For Atharis, jihad is viewed in its traditional sense, primarily as physical struggle, which is permitted for defensive purposes and to combat oppression, but is not the sole or primary meaning of the word.

Athari View in Contrast With Other Schools

Ash’ari and Maturidi Schools: Unlike the Athari school, which focuses on the literal meaning of texts, Ash’ari and Maturidi schools tend to use metaphorical interpretations to align with their understanding of Allah’s transcendence and to avoid anthropomorphism.
“Greater jihad”: The concept of “greater jihad” as a purely spiritual struggle is more commonly emphasized by Sufi-inclined Muslims, who may distance themselves from the idea of jihad as physical fighting.

Core Tenets of the Athari View on Jihad

Literalism and Textualism: Atharis, also known as Salafis, interpret the Qur’an and Hadith literally, accepting their explicit meanings without seeking metaphorical interpretations.
Defensive and Just Warfare: Armed struggle is sanctioned to defend Muslims, non-Muslims suffering oppression, and to uphold justice. Aggression is forbidden, as stated in the Qur’an: “Fight in the way of Allah against those who fight against you, but begin not hostilities. Lo! Allah loveth not aggressors.“
Rejection of Speculative Theology: The Athari approach rejects philosophical and rationalistic interpretations of scripture, believing that the meanings of the Qur’an and Sunnah should be taken at face value without trying to determine the “how” (kayfiyyah) or modality of Allah’s attributes or actions.

Ja’far al-Sadiq (702-765 AD)

In Islam, “Ja’fari” refers to the Ja’fari school of jurisprudence named after the sixth Shi’a Imam, Ja’faral-Sadiq. This school is the primary source of Islamic law for Twelver and Ismali Shi’a Muslims and is officially enshrined in the Iranian constitution. The term can also refer to a surname associated with descendants of the Imam.

It is a prominent legal system that differs from Sunni schools in its reliance on ijtihad and certain rulings on personal status and commerce. Ja’fari law is enshrine on every (k ed in the constitution of Iran and is recognized by other institutions as a major school of thought.

Key Features of Ja’fari Jurisprudence

Founder: Named after the sixth Shi’a Imam, Ja’far al-Sadiq (died 765 CE).
Reliance on ijtihad: It heavily relies on the process of ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) to interpret Islamic law.
Legal Interpretation: It expanded the tools for legal interpretation, particularly in the area of contracts.
Official Status: It is the official source of Islamic law in Iran and is accommodated in the legal system of Lebanon.
Recognition: Since 1959, it has been recognized by Al-Azhar University as the “fifth school” of Islam, alongside the four Sunni schools.
Specific Rulings: It includes specific rulings on matters such as religious taxes, inheritance, commerce, and temporary marriage (mut’a).

Historical Context

Emergence: The school emerged during the late Umayyad and early Abbasid periods.
Influence: It is considered by some to be foundational for other schools, as Imam al-Sadiq taught influential scholars who went on to found the Abu Hanifa and Malik schools of thought.
Spread: The school was imposed as the state jurisprudence in Iran during the Safavid dynasty, and followers are predominantly found in Iran, Iraq, and Azerbaijan, with significant minorities in other countries like Lebanon and Afghanistan.

Ja’fari Jurisprudence

Origin: Named after the sixth Shi’a Imam, Ja’far al-Sadiq, who lived in the 8th century.
Significance: It is the main legal school for Shi’a Islam and differs from the four main Sunni schools in its methods of legal interpretation and some rulings.
Legal Status: It is the official state jurisprudence in Iran and is recognized in Lebanon’s legal system.
Acceptance: The Ja’fari school has been afforded the status of a “fifth school” alongside the four Sunni schools by Azhar University and is listed among the recognized madhhabs (school of thought within Islamic jurisprudence) in the Amman Message (a declaration and explanation of the reality of Islam and its role in contemporary society).

The Ja’fari school’s view of jihad is a complex topic that includes both the concept of internal struggle against one’s own desires and the external defense of Islam, with differing views on the role of clerical authority during the occultation of the Twelfth Imam.

Ja’fari School of Thought on Jihad

Internal and External Jihad: The Ja’fari school views jihad in two main ways. The “greater jihad” of fighting one’s own inner desires and the “lesser jihad” of external defense against enemies.
Authority and Jihad: There is debate among Shi’a thinkers regarding the role of clerical authority in authorizing jihad, particularly during the occultation of the Twelfth Imam.
- Some, like Sheikh Ja’far Kashif al-Ghita, argued that the duty to defend Islam through jihad falls to mujtahids (religious jurists) during this time.
- Others believe that a more theoretical approach, put on hold until the reappearance of the Imam, is required for any large-scale jihad.
Jurisprudence: The Ja’fari school of thought, predominantly found in Shi’a Islam, emphasizes justice and can be seen as both an objective (Conventional Fiqh) and a subjective (Dynamic Fiqh) understanding of religious law, which influences their approach to issues like j9ihad.

See COPYRIGHT information below.