0
0
COMMENTARIES ON ISLAM
Prayer
The Arabic word for prayer is şalāh (plural şalawāt), which means “supplication” (al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 27, p. 58). In the religious sense, it can be defined both generally as well as technically. Generally, according to Ibn Manẓūr (d. 1311), şalāh means “supplication” or “seeking forgiveness” depending on the context as well as on the one(s) to whom the prayer is attributed (Lisān al-ʿArab). The Qurʾān uses şalāh in relation to Allah, to the angels, and to believers as well. When it is attributed to Allah, it means “the granting of mercy” to the recipients of the prayer. The Qurʾān states: “He [i.e., Allah] it is Who sends blessings [şalāh] on you, as do His angels, that He may bring you out from the depths of darkness into light: and He is full of mercy to the believers” (33:43). Later it says: “Allah and His angels send blessings [şalāh] on the Prophet” (33:56). For the angels, it means supplication to Allah for His blessings upon those whom the prayer is made for.
For the believers, şalāh refers to both seeking blessings for the Prophet and the performance of regular prayers, although the command is expressed differently in each case. Prayer in Islam refers to a variety of practices which include the ritual prayer, reading the Qurʾān for healing (i.e., ruqyah), and supplications. The technical definition for the ritual prayer, according to Sabiq (1991), is “a type of worship that is consisting of specific statements and actions. It is begun by pronouncing the greatness of Allah, and is concluded with the salutation of peace” (p. 35). The majority of scholars define it as follows: “[prayer consists of] statements and actions that are begun with Takbīr (i.e., pronouncing the greatness of Allah) and concluded by taslīm (i.e., uttering the salutation of peace) along with the intention and according to specific conditions” (al-Mawsūʿah al Fiqhiyyah, vol. 27, p. 58).
Reading the Qurʾān for healing can be traced to textual foundations in both the Qurʾān and the Prophet’s traditions. In the Qurʾān, there are three verses that describe the book as a means of healing. These verses are:
- 57:10: O’ Mankind, an admonishment has come to you from your Lord, cure to that which is in the chests, and guidance and mercy to the believers;
- 17:82: And we send down of the Qurʾān that which is a cure and mercy;
- 41:44: say it is [i.e., the Qurʾān] guidance and a cure for those who believed.
From the Prophet’s tradition, there are numerous reports that indicate the Prophet’s use of verses or chapters from the Qurʾān (e.g., 1:113–114) for both protection from harm as well as for healing. Many Muslim scholars assert that the Qurʾān can be used to provide a cure for both moral vice and physical illnesses. A well-known practice in most Muslim countries is reading the Qurʾān for healing and protection. The act of reading the Qurʾān in this context is called ruqyah, and the person who performs such functions is called rāqī. Ruqyah is used for both protection and healing from physical and mental harm. In many Muslim cultures, belief in the evil eye (ḥasad), black magic, and demons (jinn) is prevalent. In such cultures, mental illnesses are often confused with or misdiagnosed as demonic possession, or some other spiritual affliction. The spread of such notions has encouraged the spread of ruqyah as a paid bout not officially regulated profession.
Historic Development Of The Prayers
In terms of historical development, the Islamic form of ritual prayer evolved through two stages: During the first stage, prayer was to be performed without specific numbers or times, as demonstrated by the example of the Prophet and his followers. This stage was during the time lasting from the Prophet’s first revelation to the event of the isrāʾ (the miraculous night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, referenced in the Qurʾān 17:1) and the miʿrāj, (the Prophet’s ascension into heavens). The isrāʾ and miʿrāj events took place after the death of the Prophet’s uncle and wife in the tenth year after the commencement of the Prophet’s mission. There is no consensus on the exact date or year it took place except that it happened in Mecca between the eleventh and thirteenth year of Prophethood. It was during the miʿrāj journey (i.e., ascension) that the formal ritual prayer was prescribed. The second stage signaled the establishment of prayer as an Islamic obligation to be performed five times daily in the form that is known and practiced by Muslims now (al Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 27, pp. 52–53).
Islam generally requires Muslims to offer five obligatory prayers every day at specific times. These prayers are:
- fajr (dawn), which extends from dawn and to be completed anytime before sunrise.
- ẓuhr (early afternoon), which extends from the time when the sun moves from its zenith to the time for the next prayer.
- ʿaşr (late afternoon), which extends until just before sunset.
- maghrib (after sunset), which extends from after sunset until the time of the next prayer, ʿishāʾ.
- ʿishāʾ (late night), which begins with the disappearance of the red twilight after sunset extends till midnight and in cases of extreme need or necessity, its time can extend until the time of fajr.
The time of every prayer as well as the time between any two prayers could vary depending on the geographic location and the time of the year. There are several computer programs as well as smart device applications that can calculate the prayer times as well as the direction of qiblah (the sacred house in Mecca) using specific scientific methods of calculation that are recognized and approved by judicial Islamic authorities in the Muslim world.
Muslims are encouraged to offer additional prayers during the day and night which can range from strongly recommended (Muakkadah) to voluntary. The term “strongly recommended” suggests that such prayers are not obligatory. This category includes prayers which the Prophet offered regularly in both residence and travel (e.g., witr and the sunnah prior fajr). A lower category is the sunnah rātibah (i.e,. regular sunnah prayer), which includes voluntary prayers associated with the regular five daily prayers. The last category is that of voluntary prayer whose both number and frequency are left for the believer to decide based upon his/her willingness and ability (e.g., ḑuḥá [midmorning] prayer).
Elements Of Prayer
According to the Ḥanafī and Ḥanbalī schools of thought, the acts and statements that constitute prayer are classified into three categories:
(1) pillars (arkān);
(2) obligatory (wajibāt) elements; and
(3) recommended elements (sunnah).
The category of arkān refers to the acts and statements without which the prayer would be invalid. Examples include bowing and prostrating (if physically possible). Arkān statements include starting the prayer with glorifying Allah by saying Allahu Akbar, recitation of the first chapter al-Fatiḥah (i.e., the Opening) while standing. Failing to do any act or statement that falls under the first category causes the prayer to be nullified. To remedy any forgetfulness in this category, the worshipper must repeat the act that was missed and compensate for such forgetfulness by prostrating two times at the end of the prayer.
The obligatory category refers to the acts and statements of the prayer that must be done; but if left out unintentionally because of forgetfulness, the prayer can be corrected by making extra prostrations. Example of these acts include sitting to recite tashahhud after two rakʿahs in the prayer, which consists of three or fou rakʿahs, saying tasbīḥ in rukūʿ (i.e., bowing) and sujūd (i.e., prostration). Examples of the statements include saying takbīr when moving from one position in the prayer to another and saying samiʿa Allāhu liman ḥamidah (i.e., Allah hears those who praise Him) when standing up after bowing. The recommended acts of the prayer are voluntary and the prayer would not be affected whether they were left out intentionally or unintentionally.
The Mālikīs and Shāfiʿīs limit these categories into Pillars and Recommended only.
The movements in a typical prayer include standing, bowing, prostrating, sitting between prostration, raising the hands parallel to the ears or shoulders, and, for some schools of thought (e.g., Ḥanafī, Shāfiʿī, and Ḥanbalī) putting the right hand on the left at the level of the navel for the first and on the chest for the other two.
Muslim scholars have also outlined the conditions or prerequisites of prayer that must be fulfilled. These conditions are classified into:
(a) conditions of the obligation; and
(b) conditions of correctness according to the Ḥanafī, Mālikī, and Shāfiʿī schools of thought.
The Mālikīs, however, added a third category which is conditions for correctness/obligation (al-Mausūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 27, pp. 55–61).
There are three conditions that make prayer obligatory: acceptance of Islam, sanity and consciousness, and age, typically starting at puberty. As for the last condition, many Muslims are encouraged to teach their children how to pray starting as early as seven years of age (Tarazi, 1995, p. 131).
Validity Of Prayer
The following elements are needed for the prayer to be considered valid:
Purity
Purity (ţahārah) of the worshipper’s body, clothes, and place of prayer. Purity of the body requires specific ritual washing of some parts of the body in a specific order and manner which is called wuḑūʾ. In some cases, the whole body washing (ghusl) becomes required. These cases are:
(a) following sexual intercourse or nocturnal emission;
(b) at the end of a menstruation cycle;
(c) at the end of postpartum bleeding;
(d) conversion to Islam (for the person who was not a Muslim); and
(e) for the deceased before burial.
For those who wash the body of a deceased, it is recommended for them to perform a ghusl but it is not obligatory.
Both wuḑūʾ and ghusl must be done with pure water, with no additives that change its natural characteristics, which are taste, color, and smell. Fluoridated water is acceptable since fluoride does not change the natural characteristics of water and, at the same time, is necessary for health. Furthermore, natural elements that ordinarily mix with water such as tree leaves, mud, and sand do not affect water’s purity. Wuḑūʾ or ghusl can also be substituted for by the process known as tayammum, which refers to wiping over the hands and the face. Tayammum can be done in two cases: when there is a lack of clean water to perform wuḑūʾ or ghusl; and if the person is unable to perform the bathing due to illness or disability. In tayammum, wiping over the face is agreed upon among the four Sunnī schools of thought. Wiping over the hands to the wrist is a required obligation according to the Ḥanafī and Shāfiʿī schools, while the Mālikī and Ḥanbalī schools insist that they must be wiped over up to the elbows (al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 14, pp. 248–273).
Time Of Day
Proper time of prayer: In the past, Muslims determined the prayer time by observing the sun’s movement. Nowadays, modern timekeeping devices can determine prayer times accurately according to one’s specific school of thought as well as geographical location, and announce the call to prayer with the voice recording of the muʾadhdhin (the person who calls people to prayer) in the mosque (masjid).
Direction
For the people who are located far away from the Kaʿbah, they can simply face the approximate direction (according to the Ḥanafīs and also most prominent scholars in the Mālikī, Shāfiʿī, and Ḥanbalī schools of thought). There are, however, other opinions in the Shāfiʿī and Ḥanbalī schools that the worshipper must face the exact direction of the Kaʿbah. (al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 4, p. 67). To determine the direction of the qiblah (i.e., the direction of the Kaʿbah) accurately, Muslims use compasses or electronic applications on smart devices that are widely available nowadays.
Attire
Dressing properly for the prayer, known as satr al-ʿawrah in Islamic terminology, applies differently between men and women. For instance, men have to cover at least the area between the navel and the knees while women must cover all of the body except the face, the hands, and the feet (al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 27, p. 60). The Shīʿī Imāmīs are not much different (Maghniyyah, 2017). The above-mentioned criteria meet the obligatory requirements only. Many scholars stress that the dress for prayer should be beautiful and respectful, based upon Qurʾānic verse 7:31 which states: “O’ children of Adam: beautify yourselves at every masjid [i.e., at every place of prayer].” To meet such standards, scholars mention the following criteria for dress:
(1) looseness: to prevent detailing the body parts;
(2) thickness: to prevent revealing the shape and color of the skin;
(3) not imitating specific official dress of non-Muslim groups;
(4) not dressing like the opposite sex;
(5) decent but not ostentatious to disallow bright and attractive colors and designs that divert people’s attention toward the dress rather than the person, and (6) not intended for show and extravagance.
Prayer And Islamic Bioethics
Jurists cite various scriptural passages for concessions and accommodations regarding prayer, which pertain mostly to one’s physical health. In general, individuals are relieved from obligations that fall beyond their abilities. Examples of relevant passages in the Qurʾān include:
- “And [Allah] has imposed no difficulties on you in religion” (22:78).
- “Allah intends every facility for you; He does not want to put you to difficulties” (2:185).
- “On no soul doth Allah place a burden greater than it can bear” (2: 286).
- In one ḥadīth the Prophet is reported as having said: “If I forbid you to do something, then keep away from it and if I order you to do something, do of it as much as you can” (included in the collections of al-Bukhārī and Muslim).
- One of the main maxims in the Islamic legal tradition has been: “Hardship brings ease.” It is considered one of five maxims upon which much of Islamic jurisprudence is based (al-Suyuti, 1983. pp. 8, 85).
Several passages highlight prayer-specific concessions. For example, one ḥadīth states: “Pray while standing, and if you cannot do that, pray while sitting, and if you cannot even do that, pray while lying on your side” (al-Bukhārī, 1117, book 18, ḥadīth 37; also narrated by Ibn Mājah, Abū Dāwūd and al-Tirmidhī). The example of the Prophet during his terminal illness, when he led his companions in prayer while in a sitting position, provides further support for this report.
According to al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah “Illness does not negate one’s competence and responsibilities which are due either to Allah or to fellow humans” (vol. 36, pp. 55, 366). For the sick, however, acts of worship are required according to the patient’s ability. Only duties constituting unbearable hardship are either delayed or waived. Prayer, however, is obligatory for every adult Muslim who is mentally capable, regardless of physical ability except for women during their menses and postnatal bleeding periods. Prayer must be performed at the level of the patient’s ability and whatever is not possible, is feared to be harmful, or detrimental to the healing process, should be waived or substituted with the next possible alternative.
There are a number of concessions available to those who are ill. To illustrate, patients are permitted to use tayammum even in the presence of water if the use of water can be harmful, or is impossible to use. Those wearing a cast or bandage are permitted to wipe over the covering instead of washing the body part which is concealed. Bedridden patients are permitted to pray toward any direction other than that of the qiblah.
If the patient cannot stand independently or with assistance, he or she is permitted to substitute the standing positions in the prayer with sitting. If the patient cannot pray standing or sitting, then he or she should pray while lying down with the feet facing the qiblah. If the person cannot do that, then he or she should lie down on his or her right side facing the qiblah. The patient who is unable to stand can substitute bowing and prostration by gesturing with the head (i.e., lowering the head slightly for the bowing, and more so for the prostration). If the patient is unable to make this gesture, he or she should intend the movement in the heart and perform the prayer, at least according to the Mālikīs, Shāfiʿīs, and most Ḥanbalīs. The Ḥanafīs and some Ḥanbalīs — including the prominent scholar Ibn Taymīyah (d. 1328) — asserted that if the patient is unable to make any movement with the head to indicate the prayer’s position, then the prayer is completely waived: “If gesturing with one’s head is impossible, then prayer is waived because mental capacity alone is not sufficient to direct the order [toward such an individual]” (al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 36, p. 356). This opinion is particularly helpful after the patient regains health. He/she would not be required to compensate for the missing prayer during such incapacitating condition, particularly if the number of missed prayers are too many. According to Ḥanafī scholars, this will be the case if they are more than the prayers of twenty-four hours. To ease the burden of the obligation, patients are allowed to combine the two afternoon prayers during the scheduled time of either one. They can also consolidate the two after-sunset prayers. This opinion is that of the minority, specifically the Ḥanbalīs and some Mālikīs) (al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 27, p. 265). While the Ḥanafīs, Shāfiʿīs, and some Mālikīs refused to grant such permission, the concession is commonly advocated by contemporary councils of jurisprudence. If the patient suffers a disease that affects his or her mental ability to the extent of lacking comprehension, recollection, and awareness (e.g., Alzheimer’s disease), then the requirement of prayer is waived completely. If the mental condition is temporary, then the prayer is waived during that time.
Patients who are unable to achieve the ritual cleanliness and those whose situation is permanent (for example, having a urine or other excretion receptacles attached to their bodies, or bleeding constantly, etc)., can pray as they are without having to remove what is attached to them. Patients who make the effort to fulfill the requirements for the prayers but fail to do it perfectly (according to all the conditions of correctness) are not required to repeat the prayer again.
Patients who forget the prayer or miss it while sleeping can make it up as soon as they remember. This is based upon the ḥadīth stating: “Whoever forgets a prayer or misses it because of sleep, must pray it as soon as he [she] remembers it, there is no expiation for it except that” (reported by al-Tirmidhī, “Chapter of what is reported regarding the man who forgets his prayer”; see also al-Mawsūʿah al-Fiqhiyyah, vol. 40, p. 271).
Individuals who experience repeated doubts about the efficacy of prayer are encouraged to seek medical, psychological or psychiatric attention to overcome this condition, whether it occurs before, during or after the prayer.
Prayer
401 – 005
Last Update: 02/2021
