150 – 002 – Chronology Of Islam

COMMENTARIES ON ISLAM

Chronology Of Islam

c. 570                        Prophet Muḥammad (d. 632)

c. 595                       Muḥammad marries Khadījah, his first and only wife (until her death) and mother of his four daughters,

Zaynab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthūm, and Fāṭimah, and two sons who died in infancy, al-Qāsim and ʿAbd Allāh

610                           Muḥammad receives call to prophethood through first for revelation of the Qurʿān, continues to receive

prophecies for twenty-two years

610                           Khadījah is first to believe in Muḥammad’s prophethood, becoming first convert to Islam

613                           Muḥammad begins public preaching in Mecca

613                           First emigration of Muslims (to Abyssinia), although Muḥammad remained in Mecca to continue preaching

619                           Deaths of Muḥammad’s wife, Khadījah, and uncle, Abū Ṭālib, leaving Muḥammad without a protector

619                            Muḥammad tries to leave Mecca

621                            Muḥammad’s first contact with Medina

622                            Migration (Hijrah) of early Muslims to Medina

622                            Islam takes form of political state

622                            First year of Islamic calendar

622                            Prophet Muḥammad establishes mosque of Qubāʿ in Medina as first religious waqf

622                            Mosque of the Prophet built in Medina

622                           Muḥammad marries ʿĀʿishah (d. 678), daughter of first caliph, Abū Bakr, and exemplary female figure for

Sunnī Muslims

622                          To 623: series of compacts between Muslims, Jews, and Christians in the Arabian Peninsula, treaty relations

establishing interfaith cooperation and peaceful coexistence

624                          Battle of Badr — Muslims outnumbered, but victorious; symbol for Muslims of divine intervention and guidance

625                          Battle of Uḥud — Muḥammad and Muslims attacked and defeated by Meccans

626                          First charitable waqf for benefit of the poor and needy established in the form of seven orchards in Medina

626                          Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī (d. 680), son of ʿAlī and Fāṭimah, grandson of?  Muḥammad and third Shīʿī imam

627                          Battle of the Trench/Ditch — Muḥammad and Muslims victorious over Meccans and Bedouin mercenaries

627                          Muḥammad consolidates leadership in Medina

627                         ʿĀʿishah accused of adultery in “Affair of the Necklace,” but exonerated by Qurʿānic revelation

628                         Treaty of Ḥudaybīyah permits Muslims to make pilgrimage to Mecca by establishing temporary truce

628                         Muslims defeat and expel Jews of Khaybar after repeated violations of treaties by Jews

629                             Qiblah (direction of prayer) changed from Jerusalem to Mecca

630                             Muḥammad occupies Mecca

632                             Death of Muḥammad

632                             Abū Bakr becomes first caliph

633-661:                  Reign of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs—normative period for Sunnī Islam

633                             Death of Fāṭimah, daughter of Muḥammad, wife of ʿAlī, and mother of Ḥasan and Ḥusayn

634                             Death of first caliph Abū Bakr

634                             ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb becomes second caliph, initiating designation of waqf via written and witnessed documentation and relegation of women to separate room of mosque for prayers with their own imam, rather than in same room (behind the men) as had occurred during lifetime of Muḥammad

637                             Battle of Qādisīyah, Muslim Arabs defeat the Persians

638                             Muslims occupy Jerusalem

638                             Construction of al-Aqṣā Mosque complex begins

639                             Expansion of Islam into Central Asia and Caucasus begins

644                             Caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb assassinated; ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān becomes third caliph

644                             Qurʿān is collected and put in final format during reign of ʿUthmān, within twenty years of Muḥammad’s death

652                             Death of Abū Dharr al-Ghifārī, companion of Muḥammad, one of earliest converts to Islam, symbol of loyalty to Muḥammad’s family, and focus of modern ideological debates criticizing the hoarding of wealth and the caliphate of ʿUthmān

656                             Caliph ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān assassinated; ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib becomes fourth caliph

656                             Battle of the Camel with ʿĀʿishah leading Muslim forces against Caliph ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib

656-661:                  first Muslim civil war over succession, leading to Sunnī-Shīʿī split

657                             Battle of Ṣiffīn, between forces of Muʿāwiyah of the ʿUmayyad family and the army of ʿAlī; the Khārijīs secede from ʿAlī’s camp in protest over negotiations

661                             Caliph ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib assassinated

661                             Muʿāwiyah ibn Abī Sufyān founds ʿUmayyad dynasty

662-750:                  ʿUmayyad Caliphate; Arab military aristocracy

670                             Muslim conquest of northwest Africa

670                             Death of Muḥammad’s grandson, Ḥasan

680                             Ḥusayn, son of ʿAlī and grandson of Muḥammad, leads rebellion against ʿUmayyad caliph Yazīd and is martyred at Karbala, Iraq, creating paradigm of protest and suffering for Shīʿah; martyrdom on tenth day of Muḥarram is commemorated annually as ʿĀshūrāʿ by Shīʿah

680-692:                  second Muslim civil war following death of Muʿāwiyah

691                             Dome of the Rock completed in Jerusalem by Caliph ʿAbd al-Mālik

691                             Earliest extant coins from ʿUmayyad caliphate

692-1099:                Muslims rule Jerusalem

699                             Abū Ḥanīfah (d. 767), founder of Ḥanafī school of Islamic law, dominant in Ottoman and Moghul empires

705-715:                  Great ʿUmayyad Mosque built in Damascus

709                             Mihrab as niche indicating direction of Mecca for prayer first used in mosque architecture

711                             Berber converts to Islam cross Straits of Gibraltar and enter southern Iberia, expanding Islam into Europe

711                             Death of Jābir ibn Zayd al-Azdī, founder of Ibāḍī sect, moderate derivative of Khārijīs

713                             Mālik ibn Anas (d. 795), founder of Mālikī school of law, dominant in Africa

714                             Death of fourth Shīʿī imam, ʿAlī Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn; disputed succession among Shīʿah results in creation of Zaydī (Fiver) branch of Shīʿī Islam in opposition to Shīʿī majority

c. 717                        Rābiʿah al-ʿAdawīyah (d. 801), Ṣūfī saint and teacher credited with introducing selfless love of God into mystical tradition

728                             Death of Ḥasan al-Baṣrī, pivotal early Ṣūfī

732                             Charles Martel defeats Muslims at Battle of Tours, France, halting expansion of Islam into Europe

733                             Death of fifth Shīʿī imam, Muḥammad al-Bāqir

744-750:                  third Muslim civil war and defeat of ʿUmayyads by ʿAbbāsids

750                             Death of John of Damascus, author of first coherent Christian treatment of Islam

751-850:                  consolidation of ʿAbbāsid Muslim empire in Iraq, western Iran, Khurasan, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Syria by caliphs al-Mahdī, Hārūn al-Rashīd, and al-Maʿmūn

751-1258:                ʿAbbāsid Caliphate — height of Islamic civilization, development of Islamic law, patronage of art and culture, booming trade, commerce, agriculture, and industry

754-775:                  rule of Caliph al-Manṣūr, who built the city of Baghdad as the capital of the ʿAbbāsid Empire

756                             Emirate of Córdoba founded by ʿUmayyad prince ʿAbd al-Raḥmān

765                             Death of sixth Shīʿī imam and founder of Jaʿfarī school of

Islamic law, Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq; succession disputed, creating split between Sevener (Ismāʿīlī) and Twelver Shīʿah

767                             Death of Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq, early biographer of the Prophet

767                             Muḥammad al-Shāfiʿī (d. 820), founder of Shāfiʿī school of Islamic law, dominant in Arabic-speaking areas of eastern Mediterranean

773                             Death of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Awzāʿī, founder of extinct Sunnī Awzāʿī law school

776                             To 809: Ibāḍī state of Tahirt (now Tiaret) in North Africa

780                             Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwāizmī (d. 850), father of modern algebra and major scientist

780                             Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal (d. 855), founder of Ḥanbalī school of Islamic law, dominant in Saudi Arabia and prominent among conservative groups

785                             Great Mosque built at Córdoba

786-809:                  Hārūn al-Rashīd, caliph (legendary exploits recounted in The Thousand and One Nights), height of ʿAbbāsid caliphate

789                             Foundation of city of Fez by Idrīs ibn ʿAbd Allāh, as first capital and Islamic spiritual center in Morocco

799                             Death of Mūsā al-Kāẓim, recognized by Twelver Shīʿah as the seventh imam

801-900:                  establishment of universally accepted orthography and system of vocalization for Qurʿānic text compiled under ʿUthmān

c. 801-1962:           Zaydī imams rule Yemen

813-833:                  al-Maʿmūn caliph, establishes the Bayt al-Ḥikmah (House of Wisdom) as a major center of intellectual activity including translation of ancient Greek materials into Arabic, thus preserving them for future generations and making them once again available to Western culture

819-1005:                Sāmānid dynasty rules Khurasan and Transoxania

829-830:                  Coptic uprising in Egypt against Muslim representatives of ʿAbbāsid caliph

833-945:                  emergence of regional states within ʿAbbāsid territories (present-day Iraq, western Iran, Khurasan, Egypt, and Syria)

836                             ʿAbbāsid capital transferred from Baghdad to Samarra (in present-day Iraq)

838                             Death of Fāṭimah of Nisapur, described as one of highest Ṣūfīs of her age

852                             Great Mosque of Samarra completed

859                             Mosque of Qarawīyīn built in Morocco

862                             Mosque of Andalus built in Morocco

864-1126:                Zaydī imamate in northern Iran

865                             al-Rāzī (d. 925), Muslim physician

867-1480:                Ṣaffarids rule Sīstān

c. 868                        Death of al-Jāḥiẓ, master of Arabic literature and Muʿtazilī scholar

868-905:                  Tūlūnid dynasty in Egypt and Syria

870                             Death of al-Bukhārī, major Sunnī compiler of ḥadīth

874                             Twelfth Imam, Muḥammad al-Mahdī, goes into occultation/hiding; end of direct rule of Shīʿī imams

874                             Death of Abū Yazīd al-Bisṭāmī, founder of Bisṭāmī Ṣūfī order

875-941:                  “Short” or “Lesser” Occultation for Twelver Shīʿah, during which the Twelfth Imam’s “special deputies” are believed to have carried on the functions of the imamate in religious and social affairs

875                             Death of Muslim ibn al-Ḥajjāj, major Sunnī compiler of ḥadīth

877                             Death of Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq, major biographer of prophet Muḥammad

878                             Abū Naṣr al-Fārābī (d. 950), philosopher and author of The Virtuous City

879                             Completion of Mosque of Ibn Ṭūlūn, Cairo

883                             Death of Abū Sulaymān Dāʿūd al-Ẓāhirī, founder of extinct Sunnī Ẓāhirī law school

887                             Death of Ibn Mājah al-Qazwīnī, major Sunnī compiler of ḥadīth

888                             Death of Abū Dāʿūd al-Sijistānī, major Sunnī compiler of ḥadīth

892                             Death of Abū ʿĪsā al-Tirmidhī, major Sunnī compiler of ḥadīth

899                             ʿUbayd Allāh al-Mahdī declares himself imam of Sevener Shīʿah, leading to split between Ismāʿīlīs and followers of ʿUbayd Allāh who founded a state in North Africa and the Fāṭimid dynasty in Egypt

901-1000:                peak of cultural and artistic flowering of Córdoba caliphate

915                             Death of Abū ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Nisāʿī, major compiler of ḥadīth

920-1171:                Fāṭimid dynasty rules North Africa, Egypt, and Syria

922                             Death of Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Jarīr al-Ṭabarī, major historian and jurist

929                             Andalusian caliphate founded by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III

930-1003:                Hamdānid dynasty

931                             Death of Ibn Masarrah, Ṣūfī philosopher

931                             Death of Muḥammad ibn Zakarīyā al-Rāzī (Rhazes), physician and philosopher

932-1062:                Buyid (Buwayhid) dynasty, takes control of ʿAbbāsid caliphate in 945

935-969:                  Ikhshīdid dynasty rules Egypt and Syria

936-1013:                Abū al-Qāsim al-Zahrāwī, Andalusian physician and father of modern surgery

940                             Death of Muḥammad ibn Yaʿqūb al-Kulaynī, major Shīʿī compiler of ḥadīth

941- – -: “Complete” or “Greater” Occultation of the Twelfth Imam during

which Twelver Shīʿah accept guidance of “general deputies” until the return of the Hidden Imam

965                             Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (d. c. 1039), mathematician, scientist, and founder of modern optics

969                             Foundation of the city of Cairo as the Fāṭimid capital and the establishment of al-Azhar University in Cairo, oldest continuously operating university in the world

973                             Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī (d. 1048), major Muslim scientist and philosopher

977-1186:                Ghaznavids rule Khurasan, Afghanistan, and northern India

980                             Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Avicenna; d. 1037), philosopher and author of The Just City and The Book of Healing

c. 990      -1215:     Ghūrī dynasty in India

991                             Death of Ibn Bābūyah (Bābawayh) al-Qummī, major Shīʿī compiler of ḥadīth

c. 1001-1147:         Almoravid dynasty in North Africa and Spain

c. 1001-1080:         Walladah bint al-Mustakfī, Andalusian poetess

c. 1001-1100:         foundation of Bohrā movement in Ismāʿīlī Shiism

1003-1088:             Nāṣir-i Khusraw, Iranian intellectual and author of Ismāʿīlī                                                                                                    propagational poetry

1009                          Fāṭimid caliph al-Ḥakīm orders destruction of Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem

1017                          Fāṭimid caliph al-Ḥakīm proclaims himself manifestation of the divine, resulting in foundation of Druze faith seeking to establish millennial world order

1030                          Death of Sultan Maḥmūd of Ghazna

1030                          Death of Abū ʿAlī Aḥmad ibn Miskūyah (Miskawayh), Persian philosopher and historian, author of first major Islamic work on philosophical ethics

1031                          End of Andalusian caliphate and beginning of the era of warring small states in Iberia

1038-1194:             Seljuk dynasty rules Iraq and Persia

1041-1186:             Seljuk sultans rule Kirman in Iran

1043                          End of admission of new adherents to Druze faith

1055                          Seljuk Turks take Baghdad, seat of ʿAbbāsid Caliphate

1058                          Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 1111), theologian, legal scholar, and mystic who integrated Sufism into mainstream Sunnī thought

1064                          Death of ʿAlī ibn Ḥazm, jurist, major theorist of the qualifications of the caliph, and author of one of the first Muslim works on comparative religion

1065-1067:             Niẓāmīyah founded as institution of higher learning by Seljuks

1068                          Death of Muḥammad al-Ṭūsī, major Shīʿī compiler of ḥadīth

1071                          Battle of Mankizert — Seljuks defeat Byzantine Empire

1072-1178:             Dānishmandids rule central and Eastern Asia

1072-1243:             Seljuk dynasty rules in Anatolia

1074                          Al-Sayyidah al-Ḥurrah al-Ṣulayḥī (d. 1138), queen of Yemen

c. 1077                      ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī Baghdādī (d. c. 1165), founder of Qādirīyah Ṣūfī order

1078-1117:             Seljuk dynasty rules Syria

1094                          Peter the Venerable (d. 1156), Abbot of Cluny in France, commissions translations and interpretations of Arabic Islamic texts into Latin, including the Qurʿān, ḥadīth, and biography of Muḥammad

1095                          Pope Urban II calls for Crusade against Islam at Council of Clermont

1099                          Crusaders capture Jerusalem, slaughtering the inhabitants and establishing Latin Kingdom

c. 1100                      Birth of Rābiʿah Balkhī, medieval Afghani poetess

1101-1200:             Ṣūfī orders begin to provide organizational framework for social movements

1106                          Aḥmad ibn ʿAlī al-Rifāʿī (d. 1182), founder of Rifāʿīyah Ṣūfī order

c. 1110                      Foundation of Bektāshī Ṣūfī order in central Anatolia

1126                          Death of Abū Madyan al-Ghawth, patron saint of Tlemcen, Morocco, and of Shādhilīyah Ṣūfī order

1126                          Ibn Rushd (Averroes; d. 1198), philosopher, physician, and chief religious judge of Córdoba

1129                          Death of ʿUmar Khayyām, master Persian poet

1130                          Death of Sanāʿī, master of Persian mystical poetry

1131-1269:             Almohad dynasty in North Africa and Spain

1138                          Saladin (Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn; d. 1193), legendary Muslim general during the Crusades and founder of Ayyūbid dynasty in Egypt

1143                          First translation of Qurʿān into Latin commissioned to Robert of Ketton by Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny

1165                          Muḥyī al-Dīn ibn al-ʿArabī (d. 1240), great medieval Muslim Ṣūfī mystic and writer

1169                          Saladin takes control of Fāṭimid Egypt

1171                          Saladin reestablishes Sunnī rule in Egypt, overthrowing the Fāṭimid dynasty and establishing his family dynasty, the Ayyūbids

1171-1250:             Ayyūbid dynasty rules Egypt

1174                          Saladin conquers Damascus

1183                          Saladin conquers Aleppo and unites Egypt and Syria

1185                          Death of Ibn Ṭufayl, author of philosophical novel translated into Hebrew and Latin

1187                          Saladin defeats Franks at Battle of Ḥaṭṭīn and recovers Jerusalem for Islam, granting clemency to the Christian inhabitants and defenders and releasing many Christian prisoners of war unconditionally

1191                          Richard the Lionheart captures Acre after promising to allow Muslim inhabitants to depart, but changes his mind and slaughters them

1191                          Death of Shihāb al-Dīn Suhrawardī, founder of philosophical school of illumination

1191-1193:             construction of Qūwat al-Islām Mosque in Delhi

1192                          Treaty between Saladin and Richard I permitting Christian pilgrimage to the Holy Land during the Crusades

1201                          Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī

(d. 1274), intellectual and father of non-Euclidean geometry

1206-1370:             Mongols rule Central Asia

1206-1555:             rule of Delhi Sultans

1207                          Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī (d. 1273), Ṣūfī mystic, musician, poet and patron saint of Mevlevî (Whirling Dervish) Ṣūfī order

1208-1574:             Ḥafṣid dynasty rules Tunisia; Zaytūnah emerges as one of the most important Islamic institutions of higher learning

1209                          Death of Niẓāmī, Persian poet and author of Khamsah, which includes the classic story of Laylah and Majnun

c. 1220                      Death of ʿAṭṭār, master of Persian mystical poetry

1220-1260:             Mongol invasions of Muslim territories

1225                          Almohad rulers abandon Spain

1226                          Death of Francis of Assisi, who encouraged Christians to live among Muslims in peace

1227-1363:             Chagatayids in Transoxania, Semirechye, and eastern Turkey

1236                          Death of Muʿīnuddīn Chishtī, founder of Chishtīyah Ṣūfī order in South Asia

1236                          Radīyah bint Iltutmish (d. 1240), sultana, military leader of Sultanate of Delhi

1241                          Death of Sultan Iltutmish

1250                          ʿAllāmah ibn al-Muṭahhar al-Ḥillī (d. 1325), Iraqi Twelver Shīʿī scholar and jurist and pivotal figure in Uṣūlī movement calling for ijtihād

1250-1517:             Mamlūk dynasty in Egypt and Syria

1256                          Assassin stronghold in Alamut, Iran, falls to Mongols; last grand master of the Assassins is executed

1256-1336:             Mongol Il-Khanids rule Persia

1256-1483:             Qaramanids rule Central Anatolia

1257                          Death of Shajar al-Durr, sultana of Egypt and heroine of the Crusades, known as the Arab Joan of Arc

1258                          Mongols sack Baghdad and execute ʿAbbāsid caliph al-Mustaʿṣim, ending ʿAbbāsid caliphate

1260                          Mamlūks defeat Mongols at ʿAyn Jālūt, in present-day Galilee

1261-1517:             relict ʿAbbāsid caliphate in Cairo

1263                          Ibn Taymīyah (d. 1328), Syrian Ḥanbalī religious and legal scholar and source of inspiration to many contemporary extremists because of legal rulings justifying rebellion against ruler of ummah on the basis of the ruler’s impiety

c. 1275                      Founding of Mevlevî (Whirling Dervish) Ṣūfī order

1281-1922:             Ottoman Empire

1292                          Marco Polo visits Aceh in northern Sumatra

1292                          Death of Persian lyric master Saʿdī

1295-1304:             Ghazan — first Mongol Khan to convert to Islam

c. 1290-c. 1425: Zaynab Fāṭimah bint ʿAbbās, prominent female Ṣūfī, establishes Ṣūfī retreat for

  women in Cairo

1301-1400:             establishment of Janissaries as elite Ottoman military corps drawn from Christian populations

1301-1400:             foundation of Nīʿmatullāhīyah Ṣūfī order

1304                          Shams al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Baṭṭūṭah (d. 1369), Muslim geographer, writer, and traveler

1325                          Death of Persian poet Amīr Khusraw Dihlavī

1326                          Ottomans take Bursa in western Anatolia

1332                          Ibn Khaldūn (d. 1406), philosopher of history and author of Muqaddimah

1334                          Death of first Ṣafavid master, Ṣafī al-Dīn Isḥāq

1340                          Black Death decimates populations of Egypt and Syria

1345                          Ottomans cross straits of the Dardanelles

1345                          Ibn Baṭṭūṭah visits Sumatra

1350                          Death of Ibn al-Qayyīm al-Jawzīyah, major Ḥanbalī jurist

1351                          Death of Sultan Muḥammad ibn Tughluq

1352                          First Ottoman capitulation (commercial privileges) granted to Genoa

1352                          Death of Persian poet Khvājū Kirmānī

1362                          Great Mosque of Varāmin, Iran, completed

1370-1405:             conquests of Tamerlane (Timur Lenk)

c. 1375                      Foundation of Naqshbandīyah Ṣūfī order in Bukhara

1389                          Ottomans defeat Serbians at Battle of Kosovo and take control of western Balkans

1390-1402:             Bayezid I rules Ottoman Empire, ending initial period of expansion

1390                          Death of Persian lyric master Ḥāfiẓ

1394                          Tamerlane builds shrine of Aḥmad Yasavī at Turkestan City

1399                          Completion of Great Mosque of Bursa

c. 1401-c. 1425: founding of Bayramiye Turkish Ṣūfī order by Haci Bayram Veli

1400                          Founding of Melaka (Malacca)

1402                          Battle of Ankara — Bayezid I captured by Tamerlane

1406                          Bibi Khanum Mosque completed in Samarkand

1407-1506:             Timurids rule Herat in present-day Afghanistan

1413-1421:             rule of Mehmed I, returning Ottoman rule between Danube and Euphrates rivers

c. 1440-1552:         foundation of Kazan Khanate in Tatarstan

c. 1440-1460:         Crimean Khanate founded by Muslim Tatars and Turks

1444                          Last anti-Ottoman European crusade defeated at Varna, Bulgaria

1451-1481:             rule of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror

1453                          Ottomans capture Constantinople

1478                          Islamic conquest of Majapahit kingdom in Java

1483                          Bābur (d. 1530), founder of Mughal Empire on Indian subcontinent

1485                          Death of ʿAbd Allāh Shaṭṭārī, founder of Shaṭṭarīyāh Ṣūfī order

1488- 1530:            rule of Sultan Mahmud Sjah of Melaka

1492                          Granada — last Muslim stronghold in Spain—falls to Christian rulers Ferdinand and Isabella

1492                          Spain expels Jewish population, which largely flees to Muslim lands

1492                          Death of Persian poet ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Jāmī

c. 1500-1920:         Bukhara Khanate in Central Asia

c. 1500-c. 1820: Funj Sultanate in Nubia

c. 1500    To 1740: Khiva Khanate

1500                          Ottomans control Greece, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Albania

1500-1599:             Shaybānids rule Samarkand

1501-1722:             Ṣafavid dynasty in Persia

1504                          Death of Aḥmad al-Bakkaʿī al-Kuntī, founder of Bakkaʿīyah Ṣūfī order in West Africa

1511                          Portuguese capture Melaka

1512-1659:             Saʿadīan dynasty rules Morocco

1514                          Ottomans defeat Ṣafavids at Battle of Chaldiran (Čaldıran), eastern Anatolia

1517                          Ottoman conquest of Egypt, Syria, Mecca, and Medina

1517                          Death of Muḥammad Ghawth, founder of Ghawthīyah Ṣūfī order in South Asia

1518-1666:             Saʿadīans rule Morocco

1519                          Ottomans capture Belgrade

1520-1566:             rule of Suleyman the Magnificent, high point of Ottoman Empire

1524                          Death of Shah Ismāʿīl of Ṣafavid dynasty

1526                          Battle of Panipat (northwestern India), beginning of Mughal rule

1526                          Ottomans conquer Hungary

1527-1857:             Mughal emperors rule South Asia1

1529                          First siege of Vienna by Ottomans fails

1534                          Ottoman occupation of Baghdad

1535                          Treaty between Ottoman Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent and French King François I results in era of combined opposition to Habsburgs

1535                          Ottomans defeat Ṣafavids and conquer Iraq and southern Caucasus

c. 1535                      Death of Bihzād, master of Herat school of painting

1540                          Rise of devshirme over ruling class in Ottoman Empire, initiating period of decline in quality of rulers and misrule

1548                          Completion of Şehzade Mehmed Mosque in Istanbul

1556-1605:             reign of Akbar (b. 1542), Mughal Empire

1557                          Completion of Suleymaniye Mosque complex in Istanbul

1564                          Shaykh Aḥmad Sirhindī (d. 1624), advocate of Islamic state and society in India

1569                          Ratification of capitulations (commercial privileges) to France by Ottoman Empire

c. 1570                      Fatehpur Sikri congregational mosque near Agra completed

1571                          Battle of Lepanto — Europeans block Ottoman advance into Mediterranean

1574                          Sinan builds Selimiye Mosque in Edirne

1580                          Ottomans grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Britain

1583                          British negotiate first trade treaty with Ottoman Empire

1588-1629:             Shah ʿAbbās ruler of Persia, high point of Ṣafavid Empire

1599-1785:             Janid dynasty in Bukhara

1600                          Persians grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Britain

1603-1629:             Ṣafavids build Maydān (royal square) of Isfahan

1606                          Treaty of Zsitva Torok — Habsburgs recognize Ottoman rule in Romania, Transylvania, and Hungary

1609                          Kâtip Çelebi (Hajji Khalifah; d. 1657) of Istanbul, author of annotated bibliography of titles of great libraries of Istanbul

1612                          Ottomans grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Dutch

1613-1645:             rule of Sultan Agung in second Mataram dynasty

1623                          Persians grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Dutch

1624                          Death of Mullah Muḥammad Amīn Astarābādī, systematic ideologue of Akhbārīyah traditionalist movement in Shiism

1628                          Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisī (d. c. 1699), Iranian Shīʿī scholar

1631                          Death of Mīr Dāmād, founder of Iranian school of illuminist philosophy

1637                          Masjid-i Shāh (Mosque of the Shah) completed in Isfahan, Iran

1638-1641:             Nuruddin ar-Raniri (Nūr al-Dīn al-Rānīrī) serves as scribe to court of Aceh, Indonesia, propagating knowledge of Arabic and Persian texts

1639                          Treaty of Qaṣr Shīrīn—permanent borders of Iraq and Iran established

1640                          Death of Ṣadr al-Dīn Shīrāzī (Mullā Ṣadrā), great Islamic metaphysician

c. 1645                      Taj Mahal completed

1658-1707:             Aurangzeb rules Mughal Empire, implementing religious rule of ʿulamāʿ and Islamic basis for character of state and society

1664—->                  ʿAlawī dynasty rules Morocco

1665                          Ottomans grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Genoa

1665                          Persians grant capitulations to France

c. 1674                      İbrahim Müteferrika (d. 1754), pioneer of printing in the Middle East

1683-1699:             Ottoman-Habsburg War

1683                          Second unsuccessful Ottoman siege of Vienna marking end to Ottoman expansion into Europe and reported to have led to creation of pastry known as croissant

1688                          Muṣṭafā ibn Kamāl al-Dīn al-Bakrī (d. 1748), revivalist of Khalwatīyah Ṣūfī order

1696                          Russia takes Azov in Crimea

1699                          Treaty of Carlowitz results in expanded capitulations by Ottomans to Europeans, including Austria

1699                          France, Russia, and Britain claim a role protective of Christian minorities in Ottoman territories

c. 1701-c. 1800: rise of Neo-Sufism and renewed interest in ḥadīth scholarship as means for moral

 reconstruction of society

c. 1701-c. 1800: Akhbārī-Uṣūlī debate among Shīʿah over proper source of guidance for Islamic

 community

c. 1701-c. 1800: ʿAbdücelil Çelebi (Levni) and Rafael the Armenian, Ottoman painters

c. 1701-1876:         Khoqand Khanate in Central Asia

1702                          Shāh Walī Allāh (d. 1762) of Delhi, India, leader of Islamic revival in India

1702                          Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1792), founder of Muwaḥḥidūn (Wahhābī) revival and reform movement in Arabia

1703                          Edirne Incident in Ottoman Empire—Shaykh al-Islam Feyzullah dominates government and grand viziers; high point of ʿulamāʿinfluence over affairs of state; ousted by Janissaries and lower-level religious leaders and students

1705-1957:             Ḥusaynid dynasty in Tunisia

1707                          Death of Emperor Aurangzeb in India

1711-1835:             Qaramanlı Turkish dynasty in Ottoman Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan

1722                          Afghans seize Isfahan, bringing end to Ṣafavid rule in Iran

1736-1795:             Afshārids in Persia

1737                          Aḥmad al-Tijānī (d. 1815), founder of Tijānīyah Ṣūfī order, major order in Morocco, which inspired West- and North African jihād and resistance movements

1737                          Ottomans grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Sweden

1737                          Edmund Gibbon (d. 1794), author of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, which includes pivotal chapter on Muḥammad and the early stages of Islamic history that sparked interest in European scholarly study of Islam

1740                          Ottomans grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Sicily

1744—->                  Āl Bū Saʿīd dynasty rules Oman, claiming title of imam until the late eighteenth century

1745                          Beginning of Wahhābī movement in Arabia

1746                          Shāh ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz (d. 1824), Indian Islamic scholar, musician, and calligrapher

1747-1842:             Durrānī dynasty rules Afghanistan

c. 1749                      Aḥmad ibn Idrīs (d. 1837), Moroccan Ṣūfī and teacher and founder of Idrīsīyah tradition

1750-1794:             Zands rule Persia

1753                          Shaykh Aḥmad al-Aḥsāʿī (d. 1826), founder of Shaykhīyah Shīʿī Ṣūfī order

1754                          Usuman Dan Fodio (d. 1817), leader of northern Nigerian reformist opposition to Hausa states

1756                          Ottomans grant capitulation (commercial privileges) to Denmark

1756                          al-Jabartī (d. 1825), Egyptian historian

1757-1790:             Sultan Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ruler of Morocco; encourages revival of Islamic

scholarship and study of ḥadīth

1761                          Ottomans grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Prussia

1774                          Treaty of Kuchuk Kaynarja — Russians take control of Black Sea and Straits from Ottomans; Ottomans grant partial capitulations (commercial privileges) to Russia

1781                          Death of Ma Mingxin, Chinese scholar and member of Naqshbandīyah Ṣūfī order

1781                          Ḥājjī Sharīʿātullāh (d. 1840), founder of East Bengali Farāʿizʿī reform movement

1783                          Ottomans grant capitulations (commercial privileges) to Spain

1785-1868:             Manghïts rule Central Asia

1785—->                  Naqshbandīyah movement leads anti-Russian resistance in Caucasus

1786                          Sayyid Aḥmad Barelwī (d. 1831), leader of jihād movement in northern India against Sikhs and British

1787                          Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Sanūsī (d. 1859) of Libya, founder of Sanūsīyah ṭarīqah and Islamic state

1789-1807:             Sultan Selim III rules Ottoman Empire and tries to implement centralizing reforms; resisted and overthrown by conservative military and administrative groups

1792                          Treaty of Jassy — Russians consolidate control of Georgia, Black Sea, and Romania

1792                          Beginning of Ottoman reforms

1792-1822:             rule of Mawlay Sulaymān in Morocco, Islamic reformer

1793                          Muḥammad ʿUthmān al-Mīrghānī (d. 1852), founder of Khatmīyah Ṣūfī order

1794-1864:             jihād state in area of present-day Mali and Senegal

1794                          ʿUmar Tal (d. 1864), Senegalese Islamic militant leader and thinker

1796                          Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi (d. 1854), proponent of adoption of Western publishing culture and technology into Malay-speaking world

1796        To 1925: Qājār dynasty rules Persia

1798                          French occupation of Egypt under Napoleon; after French withdrawal, Muḥammad ʿAlī comes to power (1805), initiating period of reform of political and economic structures along Western lines

1801                          Rifāʿah Rāfiʿ al-Ṭahṭāwī (d. 1873), Egyptian religious and legal scholar

1801-1900:             European imperial expansion in the Muslim world

1801-1900:             study of Islam (known as Orientalism) becomes separate field of university study in the West

1801-1802:             major Shīʿī shrines destroyed in Karbala and Najaf by Wahhābīyah

1803                          Aḥmad al-Bakkaʿī al-Kuntī (d. 1865), Sudanese religious and political leader

1803-1838:             Padri movement in Sumatra

1804-1805:             jihād in northern Nigeria against Gobir state led by Usuman dan Fodio

1804-1813:             first Russo-Iranian War, Iran loses territory in Georgia, Armenia, and North Azerbaijan

1805                          Mecca captured by first Saudi dynasty, presenting major symbolic challenge to Ottoman authority and legitimacy

1805-1849:             reforms introduced in Egypt by Muḥammad ʿAlī

1806                          Medina captured by first Saudi dynasty

1806-1856:             rule of Sultan Saʿīd ibn Sultan of Oman, introduced European technology

1808                          ʿAbd al-Qādir (d. 1883), leader of Algerian opposition to French imperialism after

1830 and Ṣūfī mystic and poet

1808                          Sened-i Ittifak (“Turkish Magna Carta”) declared in Ottoman Empire—first modern contract between Muslim ruler and subjects

1808-1839:             rule of Sultan Maḥmūd II, founder of Council of Ministers and Council of Judicial Ordinances in Ottoman Empire

1809                          Treaty of Dardanelles establishing diplomatic immunity between Britain and the Ottoman Empire

1810                          Raja Ali Haji (d. 1874), author of Malay grammar and dictionary of Malay based on Arabic models

1810                          Khayr al-Dīn al-Tūnīsī (d. 1889), government minister and modernist reformer in Tunisia

1812-1903:             Sokoto caliphate

1813                          Ottomans recover Mecca and Medina

1813                          Treaty of Gulistan ratifies Iran’s territorial losses to Russia in first Russo-Iranian War

1813                          Ibrāhīm al-Rashīd (d. 1874), founder of Rashīdīyah, Ṣāliḥīyah, and Dandarāwīyah Ṣūfī orders

1814                          Al-Jamiʿah al-Sayfīyah established as Arabic academy for religious education and training of Dāʿūdi Bohrā Ismāʿīlīs in Surat, India

1815                          Qurrat al-ʿAyn (d. 1851), Iranian activist who is martyred after appearing unveiled and preaching against polygyny

1816                          Ahmed Lutfi Efendi (d. 1907), one of last official Ottoman court historians

1817                          Mīrzā Ḥusayn ʿAlī Nūrī (Bahāʿ Allāh, d. 1892), prophet-founder of the Bahāʿī faith

1817                          Sayyid Ahmad Khan (d. 1898), leader of Islamic modernist movement in India

1818                          Combined Ottoman-Egyptian force razes Diriya, stronghold of first Saudi dynasty, bringing forcible end to first Saudi state

1818-1845:             Farāʿizʿī of Bengal opposes Hindus and British

1819                          Sayyid ʿAlī Muḥammad Shīrāzī (d. 1850), popularly known as “The Bāb” in Iran, a nonclerical messianic religious leader who declared himself the “gate” (bāb) to the Twelfth Shīʿī Imam, an interpreter of the Qurʿān, and ultimately the Hidden Imam

1819-1973:             Barakzays in Afghanistan

c. 1820-1885:         Turco-Egyptian rule over Sudan

1822                          Ahmad Cevdet Paşa, Shaykh al-Islām (d. 1895) of Ottoman Empire; formulates civil code combining Islamic legal principles with new legal ideas and influences Tanzimat

1824                          ʿAlī Mubārak (d. 1893), Egyptian engineer who oversaw revamping of Cairo under rule of Khedive Ismāʿīl

1825-1830:             Diponegoro leads revolt in Java

1826                          Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II abolishes Janissaries as part of campaign to modernize military

1826-1828:             Second Russo-Iranian War results in Russian victory and Treaty of Turkmenchay

1826                          İbrahim Şinasi (d. 1870), Turkish journalist

1827                          Hospital and medical school teaching European medicine opened in Cairo

1828                          Treaty of Turkmenchay expands Russian capitulations to concessions in Persia following major military victory

1828                          Publication of first Turkish-Arabic newspaper in Egypt

1830                          French invade and colonize Algeria; ʿAbd al-Qādir, leader of Qādirīyah ṭarīqah, leads resistance until 1847 and tries to establish Islamic state

c. 1833                      Malkom Khān (d. 1908), Iranian advocate of progress and reform

1835                          Ottomans occupy Libya to block French expansion in North Africa

1835                          Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad (d. 1908), self- proclaimed Mahdī and founder of Aḥmadīyah movement in Pakistan

1836                          Persia grants major concessions to Britain, including communications and transportation facilities, mining, banking, fishing, tobacco, and oil

1837                          Death of Aḥmad ibn Idrīs, founder of Idrīsīyah movement

1838                          Treaty of Balta Limani makes permanent Ottoman capitulations to Britain

1838                          Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (d. 1897), father of Islamic modernism

1839                          Major reform edict in Ottoman Empire—Hatt-ı Şerif of Gulhane (Gulhane rescript), beginning Tanzimat (reform) era

1839                          Western-style medical school opened in Istanbul

1839                          Ali Suavi (d. 1878), popular reformist figure in Ottoman Empire

1840-1842:             First Anglo-Afghan war

1840                          Codified penal code promulgated in Ottoman Empire

1840                          Mehmet Namık Kemal (d. 1888), Turkish Islamic reformer, poet, and Young Ottomanist

1841                          Ayatollah Sayyid Muḥammad Ṭabāṭabāʿī (d. 1920), leading religious leader in constitutional revolution in Iran

1842                          Osman Hamdi Bey (d. 1910), Ottoman painter

1842                          Abdülhamid II (d. 1918), thirty-fourth Ottoman sultan, r. 1876–1909; emphasized Islam as basis for internal social and political solidarity

1843                          Fazʿlullāh Nūrī (d. 1909), Iranian Shīʿī scholar and anti-constitutionalist

1844                          Chirāgh ʿAlī (d. 1895), Indian modernist author and supporter of Aligarh +movement

1847                          Racaizade Mahmud Ekrem (d. 1915), Ottoman novelist who mocked adoption of European fads and fashions

1848                          Muḥammad Aḥmad (d. 1885), Mahdī of Sudan and founder of Islamic state

1848                          Sayyid ʿAlī Muḥammad Shīrāzī (the Bāb) of Iran declares himself the Hidden Imam, initiating a new religious era and claiming abrogation of the laws of the Qurʿān

1849                          Muḥammad Abduh (d. 1905), Egyptian scholar and reformer regarded as the architect of Islamic modernism

1849                          Abū al-Hudā al-Ṣayyādī (d. 1909), Syrian Ṣūfī Shaykh and supporter of Ottoman Sultan

1849                          Syed Ameer Ali (d. 1928), Indian jurist and Islamic modernist

c. 1850                      Zainab bint Shaikh Muḥammad bin Abī al-Qāsim (Lalla Zainab; d. 1904), head and spiritual leader of Raḥmānīyah zāwiyah in Algeria

1850                          Şemseddin Sami (d. 1904), author of first Ottoman novel, addresses women’s issues and arranged marriages

c. 1850                      Amadu Bamba (d. 1927), founder of the Murīdīyah Ṣūfī order in Senegal

1851                          Ismail Bey Gasprinskii (d. 1914), Crimean Tatar reformer and sponsor of schools combining Russian and Muslim education to achieve modernization

1852                          ʿUmar Tal launches jihād in Senegal

1852                          Ṭāhir al-Jazāʿirī (d. 1920), Syrian reformer supporting constitutional government

1852                          Abülhak Hamid Tarhan (d. 1937), Ottoman poet and dramatist

1853-1856:             Crimean War results in greater European influence and interference in Ottoman affairs

1853                          Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī (d. 1931), amir and sharīf of Mecca and leader of Arab revolt against Ottoman Empire during World War I

1854                          ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Kawākibī (d. 1902), Islamic revivalist, advocate of Arab caliphate, and theorist of Islamic league as religious bond

1856                          Major reforms (Tanzimat)—Hatt-ı Hümayun (imperial decree) issued in Ottoman Empire

1856                          Nigâr Hanım (Uryan Kalb; d. 1918), Ottoman poet

1856                          Aḥmad Rizā Khān Barelwī (d. 1921), leader and ideologue of Barelwī school of Islamic thought

1856-1873:             Yunnan leads rebellion against Chinese rule and tries to establish Muslim state

1856-1876:             Young Ottomans demand constitutional system

1857                          Failed Indian Mutiny, revolt against British occupation, resulting in formal British colonization of India and dissolution of Mughal Empire

1857                          Shiblī Nuʿmānī (d. 1914), South Asian Islamic scholar and author of biographies of major Islamic figures

1857                          Saʿd Zaghlūl (d. 1927), founder of Wafd Party in Egypt

1858                          Samipaşazade Sezai (d. 1936), Ottoman novelist who criticized slavery

1858                          ʿUmar al-Mukhtār (d. 1931), Libyan Sanūsī leader of anti-Italian resistance

1859                          Rizaeddin Fakhreddin (d. 1936), Volga-Ural Muslim religious scholar and reformist

1859                          ʿAbd al-Karīm Ḥāʿirī Yazdī (d. 1936), most prominent teacher in Qom, Iran, from 1921 to 1936

1860                          Muḥammad Ḥusayn Nāʿīnī (d. 1936), leading theoretician of Iranian Constitutional movement

1861-1876:             Young Ottoman (Yeni Osmanlılar) movement appears as first constitutionalist ideology in Ottoman Empire

1862-1867:             jihād in Senegal led by Ma Ba against French

1864                          Mehmed Said Halim Pasha (d. 1921), Islamic reformer and Ottoman Grand Vizier

1864                          Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh Ḥasan (d. 1921), leader of major anti-imperialist holy war against British in Somaliland

1864                          Fatma Âliya Hanım (d. 1936), prominent Ottoman female feminist novelist

1865                          Qāsim Amīn (d. 1908), Egyptian proponent of expanded women’s rights

1865                          Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (d. 1935), cofounder of Salafīyah movement in Egypt and Islamic modernist movement

1866                          Birth of Islamic journalism in Indian subcontinent

1866                          Syrian Protestant College (later renamed American University of Beirut) founded

1866                          Jamāl al-Dīn al-Qāsimī (d. 1914), Syrian reformist scholar and supporter of constitutional government

1866                          Qarīb Allāh Abū Ṣāliḥ (d. 1936), Sudanese teacher and member of Sammānīyah Ṣūfī order

1866                          Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil (d. 1945), Ottoman novelist

1867                          Foundation of Dār al-ʿUlūm in Deoband, to combine ḥadīth studies and Sufism; center of Deobandī Indo-Pakistani reform movement

1868                          Hadji Ahmad Dahlan (d. 1923), founder of Indonesian Muhammadiyah movement

1869                          Suez Canal opens

1869                          Aḥmad al-ʿAlawī (d. 1934), Algerian Ṣūfī and poet

1869                          Shaykh Tahir Jalal al-Din (d. 1957), Malay Islamic reformer

c. 1870-1879:         construction of Takīyah Dawlat Royal Theater in Tehran for performance of taʿzīyah

1871                          Persia grants Reuters Concession, giving control over mining, banking, and railroads to European control

1871                          Death of Sayyid ʿAbd Allāh Bihbahānī, leading religious leader in Tehran

1873                          Mehmed Âkif Ersoy (d. 1936), Turkish Islamist poet

1873                          Muhammad Iqbal (d. 1938), South Asian Islamic modernist and proponent of creating Pakistan as a separate Muslim state

1873-1908:             ʿUlamāʿ-led resistance to Dutch occupation of Aceh

1874                          Muṣṭafā Kāmil (d. 1908), Egyptian nationalist and proponent of independence from Britain

1874                          Musa Yarullah Bigi (d. 1949), Volga-Ural Muslim religious scholar and philosopher

1875                          Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (Aligarh University) founded in India by Sayyid Ahmad Khan

1875                          Mehmet Zia Gökalp (d. 1924), Turkish social scientist, writer and nationalist

1875                          Muḥammad Ḥusayn Burūjirdī (Borujerdi; d. 1962), Iranian theologian and religious leader who was recognized as marjaʿ al-taqlīd for Iranian Shīʿah

c. 1876                      Bediüzzaman Said Nursî (d. 1960), Turkish modernist reformer, founder of Nurculuk movement

1876                          Ottoman Empire adopts Ottoman Constitution and codification of some parts of the sharīʿah, known as the Ottoman Code of Obligations (Mecelle); constitution quickly suspended by new sultan, Abdülhamid II

1876                          Mohammad Ali Jinnah (d. 1948), first governor-general of Pakistan

1877-1909:             Sultan Abdülhamid II rules Ottoman Empire and pursues pan-Islamic ideal as caliph; rise of Young Turk movement in opposition to Sultan’s rule, calling for restoration of constitution and ultimately destruction of Ottoman Empire

1877                          Maʿrūf al-Raṣāfī (d. 1945), Iraqi nationalist

1878                          Reza Shah Pahlavi (d. 1944), founder of the Iranian Pahlavi dynasty

1878                          Ayaz Ishaki (d. 1954), Tatar political activist and writer

1878                          ʿAlī al-Mīrghānī (d. 1968), leader of Ṣūfī brotherhood in Sudan and active patron of

 nationalist parties

1878-1880:             Second Anglo-Afghan war

1879                          ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Thaʿālibī (d. 1944), founder of the Destour party in Tunisia

1879                          Hudā Shaʿrāwī (d. 1947), Egyptian activist and founder of Egyptian Feminist Union

1879                          Ḥusayn Aḥmad Madanī (d. 1957), president of Jamʿīyatul ʿUlamāʿ-i Hind

1879                          Raden Adjeng Kartini (d. 1904), activist for women’s emancipation and education in Indonesia

1879-1882:             ʿUrābī revolt against European influence in Egypt, leading to British occupation and later rise of nationalism in Egypt

1879-1886:             Mecelle in Ottoman Empire — basis for codification of law of contracts in Muslim world

1880                          Naqshbandīyah Ṣūfī order leads Kurdish uprising, temporarily freeing most of Iranian Kurdistan from Iranian control

1880                          ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Āl Saʿūd (d. 1953), founder of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its first ruler

1880                          Abū Khaldūn Sāṭiʿ al-Ḥusrī (d. 1968), leading ideologist and popularizer of Arab nationalism and pan-Arabism

1881                          Mahdist mission declared in Sudan under leadership of Muḥammad Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh as imamate led by Anṣār religio-political movement

1881                          France establishes protectorate in Tunisia

1881                          Enver Pasha (d. 1922), Ottoman Turkish general and commander of Ottoman armies during World War I

1881                          Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (d. 1938), father of the Turkish Republic

1881                          Muṣṭafā al-Marāghī (d. 1945), Egyptian reformer and rector of al-Azhar

1882                          Britain establishes protectorate over Egypt

1882                          Ayatollah Ḥajj Sayyid Abū al-Qāsim Kāshānī (d. 1962), Iranian religious and political leader during 1950s national movement

1882                          ʿAbd El-Krim (d. 1963), Moroccan leader of Rif Rebellion and Islamic reformer

1883                          Birth of Islamic journalism in Russian Empire with publication of Tercüman by Gasprinskii

1883                          School of Fine Arts established in Istanbul

1883                          Halide Edib Adıvar (d. 1964), Turkish nationalist and one of first Turkish women to become a public figure and national hero

1884                          Publication of Al-ʿurwah al-wuthqā, by Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muḥammad ʿAbduh marks important development of Arabic and Islamic political journalism

1884                          Celal Bayâr (d. 1986), cofounder of Demokrat Parti in Turkey and prime minister

1885                          Death of Muḥammad Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd Allāh, the Sudanese Mahdī

1885                          Maulānā Muḥammad Ilyās (d. 1944), Indian activist and founder of Tablīghī Jamāʿat

1885-1898:             Mahdist state in Sudan

1886                          Malak Ḥifnī Nāṣif (Bāḥithat al-Bādiyah; d. 1918), early Egyptian women’s activist, writer and cofounder of Women’s Refinement Union

1886                          Timothy Drew (Noble Drew Ali; d. 1929), founder of Moorish Science movement in the United States, quasi-Islamic African-American movement

1886                          Nabawīyah Mūsā (d. 1951), Egyptian feminist and pioneer in women’s education

1887                          Salāmah Mūsā (d. 1958), Egyptian socialist thinker

c. 1888                      Russian Muslim intellectuals develop Jadīdism as method of language instruction for education and to reform Islamic society and raise the quality of life of Muslims

1888                          Abū al-Kalām Azād (d. 1958), Indian Urdu journalist and stylist, Islamic thinker, and religious universalist opposed to partition of India

1888                          Süleyman Hilmi Tunahan (d. 1959), founder of Süleymanlı Islamic revival movement

1888                          ʿAlī ʿAbd al-Rāziq (d. 1966), Egyptian intellectual, religious scholar, and judge

1889                          Aḥmadīyah founded by Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad in India as Islamic messianic movement

1889                          First mosque established in England

1889                          ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd ibn Bādīs (d. 1940), Islamic reformer, national leader, and head of Association of Algerian ʿUlamāʿ

1889                          Muḥsin al-Ḥakīm (d. 1970), Iraqi Shīʿī legal scholar and ayatollah, most widely followed Shīʿī mujtahid in the 1960s

1889                          Ṭāhā Ḥusayn (d. 1971), Egyptian novelist, critic, and modernist reformer

c. 1890-c. 1914: first wave of Muslim (largely Arab) immigrants to the United States until World War I

1890                          Mīrzā Rizʿa Qulī Sharīʿat Sangalajī (d. 1944), Shīʿī intellectual who argued for discarding the institution of taqlīd

1890                          Aḥmad Kasravī (d. 1946), major historian of modern Iran, political thinker, and founder of Āzādagān (Free People) Society

1890                          Mehmet Fuat Köprülü (d. 1966), cofounder of Demokrat Parti in Turkey and proponent of Turkification of Islam

1891                          Refik Koraltan (d. 1974), cofounder of Demokrat Parti in Turkey

1891-1892:             Tobacco Protest in Iran — ʿulamāʿ and merchants opposed to the Shah’s government granting tobacco concessions to Europeans; sets pattern of cooperation between two social classes and financing using khums (twenty percent tax), later used during 1979 Iranian Revolution

1892                          Muḥammad ʿAlī Jamālzādah (d. 1997), Persian novelist

1893                          Maḥmūd Shaltūt (d. 1963), reformer of al-Azhar

1895                          ʿAbd al-Razzāq al-Sanhūrī (d. 1971), Egyptian jurist, legal scholar, and architect of civil codes in several Arab countries

1895                          Al-Ḥājj Amīn al-Ḥusaynī (d. 1974), muftī of Jerusalem and nationalist leader during British rule over Palestine

1896                          First public cinema screenings in Egypt and Algeria

1897                          Nīmā Yūshīj (d. 1960), founding father of “New” Persian poetic imagination

1897                          Elijah Poole (Elijah Muhammad; d. 1975), leader of Nation of Islam black supremisti movement in United States

1898                          Mahdist state of Sudan defeated by British

1898                          Rashīd Riḍā begins publishing Al-manar in Egypt—journal serves as leading mouthpiece of Islamic reformist ideas

1898                          Messali al-Ḥajj (d. 1974), first Algerian nationalist leader in the twentieth century

1898-1915:             British control Sudan

1899                          Adnan Menderes (d. 1961), cofounder of Demokrat Parti in Turkey

1899                          Asaf Ali Asghar Fyzee (d. 1981), Indian educator, public official, and Islamic legal specialist

1899                          Abol-Qasem al-Khoʿi (d. 1992), major Shīʿī mujtahid

18991920:               Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh Ḥasan leads resistance to British in Somalia

1900                          First public cinema screening in Dakar

1900                          Foundation of Urdu Defence Association, establishing Urdu as the official language of Hyderabad state in India

1900                          Hassan Fathy (d. 1989), award-winning Egyptian architect of environmentally friendly yet traditional structures dedicated to improving the lives of the poor rural masses

1900                          Muhammad Asad (Leopold Weiss; d. 1992), Muslim scholar and writer

1900-1912:             French and Spanish protectorates established in Morocco

1901                          Persia grants D’Arcy Concession, giving Britain rights over oil industry

1901                          Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1991), famed Egyptian singer

1902                          Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (d. 1989), Iranian Shīʿī cleric, leader of Islamic Revolution and author of doctrine of “rule of the jurist” (vilāyat-i faqīh)

1903                          First public cinema screening in Lagos

1903                          Sādiq Hidāyat (d. 1951), Persian novelist

1903                          Sayyid Abū al-Aʿlā Mawdūdī (d. 1979), founder of Jamāʿat-i Islāmī in Pakistan

1903                          Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabāʿī (d. 1981), Iranian Qurʿān commentator and traditional Persian philosopher

1904                          Umm Kulthūm (d. 1975), Egyptian singer and icon recognized as the most popular performing artist in the history of the Arab world

1905                          First public cinema screenings in Tehran and Istanbul

1905                          Sukarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwiryo (d. 1962), leader of Darul Islam’s military forces in Indonesia

1905                          Necip Fazıl Kısakürek (d. 1983), Turkish poet, playwright, and essayist

1905-1911:             Constitutional Revolution in Iran places limits on Shah’s power; local religious leaders play key role in opposition to Shah

1906                          Establishment of All-India Muslim League, vehicle for foundation of Pakistan as homeland for Indian Muslims

1906                          Codification of Islamic law of obligations in Tunisia

1906                          Ḥasan al-Bannā (d. 1949), founder of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

1906                          Sayyid Quṭb (d. 1966), Egyptian scholar, political activist, and ideologue for the Muslim Brotherhood; writings have inspired contemporary jihadis my

1906                          Muḥammad, ʿAllāl al-Fāsī (d. 1973), Moroccan intellectual, historian, and founder of Istiqlāl Party

1906                          Fayṣal ibn ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Āl Saʿūd (d. 1975), King of Saudi Arabia during transformation from unification to one of the world’s most influential oil-producing powers

1907                          Mehdi Bazargan (d. 1995), Iranian Muslim reformer, modernist, and major voice of Islamic opposition before and after the revolution

1907                          Death of Muḥsin al-Mulk, theologian writing in Urdu calling for balance between religion and science

1908                          Young Turk revolution in Ottoman Empire

1908                          Regrouping of Sudanese Anṣār movement as religious order

1908                          First public cinema screening in Aleppo

1908                          Completion of Hejaz Railway connecting Istanbul to Medina

1908                          First modern school of fine arts established in Cairo

1908                          Durrīyah Shafīq (d. 1976), Egyptian scholar, teacher, journalist, and feminist activist

1908                          Hamka (Hajji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah; d. 1981), Indonesian religious scholar and writer

1908                          Mohammad Natsir (d. 1993), Indonesian intellectual, journalist, and politician

1908-1912:             Young Turk Constitutional period

1908-1918:             Young Turk era and rise of Pan-Turanism (Pan-Turkism)

1909                          First public cinema screening in Baghdad

1909                          İttihad-i Muhammadi Cemiyeti founded as religious and political organization in opposition to Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in Turkey

1910                          Taqī al-Dīn al-Nabhānī (d. 1974), Palestinian founder of Islamic Liberation Party in Jordan

1910                          Michel ʿAflaq (d. 1989), Syrian proponent of Arab nationalism

1911                          Society of Call and Guidance (Jamāʿat al-Daʿwah wa-al-Irshād) founded in Egypt by Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā as cornerstone for Ottoman Pan-Islamic activities

1911                          Ayatollah Maḥmud Ṭāliqānī (d. 1979), Iranian reformer, key ideologue of the Islamic revolution, and economic theorist

1911-1913:             Balkan wars set stage for defeat and dismemberment of Ottoman Empire

1911-1943:             Libya under Italian rule

1912                          Muhammadiyah founded in Southeast Asia to promote educational and social reform

1912                          Codification of Islamic law of obligations in Moroccan code

1912                          Morocco placed under French Protectorate

1912                          Nationalist Revolution in China results in control of wide portions of northwestern China by Muslim warlords

1912                          Foundation of Sarekat Islam, Indonesia’s first mass political party

1912                          Death of Naẕīr Aḥmad, pioneer in development of Urdu novel, focusing on social and moral themes and need for female education

1912                          Foundation of Putri Mardika (liberated women) in Jakarta as women’s wing of Budi 

Utomo movement, becomes one of Indonesia’s most influential women’s movements

1912                          Aisyiyah formed as women’s section of Muhammadiyah movement in Jogjakarta

1912                          Naguib Mahfouz (d. 2006), Egyptian novelist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature

1913                          Moorish Science movement founded in New Jersey by Timothy Drew (Noble Drew Ali); quasi-Islamic African-American movement

1913                          ʿĀʿishah ʿAbd al-Raḥmān (Bint al-Shāṭiʿ; d. 1998), Egyptian writer and professor of Qurʿānic studies and Arabic language and literature

c. 1914-c.1935: second major wave of Muslim (largely Arab) immigrants to the United States

1914                          Ottoman capitulations to European countries abolished

1914                          Egypt declared British protectorate

1914                          Death of Alṭāf Ḥusayn Ḥālī, founder of Urdu literary criticism and writer on plight of women in Muslim society

1914                          Mawlana Abulḥasan ʿAlī Nadvī, Indian intellect

1914                          Aminah al-Saʿīd, Egyptian feminist and editor of Ḥawwāʿ (Eve) women’s magazine

1915                          Muṣṭafā al-Sibāʿī (d. 1964), Syrian political thinker and educator, established the Muslim Brotherhood in Syria

1915                          Sayyidnā Muḥammad Burhānuddīn, head of Dāʿūdi Bohrā Ismāʿīlī community

1916                          Launching of Arab Revolt by the Grand Sharīf of Mecca against Ottoman Empire

1916                          Secret Sykes-Picot Agreement divides Arab territories between Britain and France

1916                          Muḥammad Aḥmad Khalafallāh, contemporary Egyptian Islamic modernist thinker

1917                          British Government issues Balfour Declaration, promising national home to Jewish people in Palestine; Jerusalem falls to British and remains under British mandate until creation of Israel in 1948

1917                          Abadi Begum (Bi Amman) pushes boundaries of purdah in India by becoming spokesperson for imprisoned sons

1917                          Shaykh Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (d. 1996), Egyptian religious scholar and leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood

1917                          Kamal Jumblatt (d. 1977), Lebanese politician, traditional Druze chieftain, and leader and ideologue of political Left

1917                          Zaynab al-Ghazālī (d. 2005), prominent writer and teacher of Muslim Brotherhood and founder of the Muslim Women’s Association in Egypt

1917-c. 1930:         Basmachi movement in Central Asia, calling for unity based on Islam in opposition to Bolshevik occupation and control

1918                          Gamal Abdel Nasser (d. 1970), leader of Egypt (1952–1970) and proponent of Arab nationalism

1918-1948:             rule of Imam Yaḥyā in Yemen, tries to impose sharīʿah over country as means of centralization

1918-1948:             Palestine under British rule

1919                          Jamʿīyatul ʿUlamāʿ-i Hind established as organization of Muslim religious scholars of India to participate in Khilāfat movement

1919                          Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi (d. 1980), last ruling monarch of the Pahlavi dynasty of Iran

1919                          Fazlur Rahman (d. 1988), Pakistani philosopher, educator, and Islamic modernist seeking integration of Islam with modern scientific education and Islamization of knowledge

1919                          ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Dūrī, Iraqi educator and Arabist social historian

1919-1923:             Turkish War of Independence

1919-1925:             Khilāfat movement in India in support of caliphate

1919-1928:             Muslim National Communist era in Soviet Union

1920                          Britain acquires mandate power over Palestine

1920                          Destour founded in Tunisia to seek voice in French colonial government through constitution and elected parliament

1920                          Murtazʿā- Muṭahharī (d. 1979), Iranian religious scholar and writer and close associate of Ayatollah Khomeini

1920                          Khālid Muḥammad Khālid, Egyptian writer and essayist

1921                          Emirate of Transjordan established under British mandate and trusteeship

1921                          Manūchihr Yaktāʿī, Persian painter and poet

1921                          Sīmīn Danīshvar, leading Iranian fiction writer and articulator of feminine consciousness

1921                          Ismāʿīl Rājī al-Fārūqī (d. 1986), Palestinian Islamic scholar, reformer, activist, and ‘                                                  proponent of Islamization of knowledge

1921                          Muṣṭafā Maḥmūd, Egyptian Islamist philosopher, author, and scientist

1921-1926:             Rif Rebellion in Morocco, major insurrection against French and Spanish protectorate authorities and most important anti-colonial uprising in Morocco until foundation of Istiqlāl party seeking independence

1922                          Egypt declares independent monarchy and new constitution

1923                          Treaty of Lausanne establishes Turkish independence and permits respect for Islamic family law in Greece

1923                          Foundation of Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People’s Party) in Turkey

1923                          Egyptian Feminist Union founded in Egypt by Hudā Shaʿrāwī

1923                          ʿĀmilīyah Foundation established in Lebanon to finance welfare activities and religious events for Shīʿah

1923                          Jalāl Āl-i Aḥmad (d. 1969), anti-Western Iranian intellectual who denounced “Westoxification”

1923                          Nāzik al-Malāʿikah (d. 2007), Iraqi poet and literary critic

1924                          Ottoman/Turkish caliphate and sharīʿah court system abolished by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

1924                          Last Ottoman Sultan, Abdülmecid, sent into exile

1924                          ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Āl Saʿūd captures the Hijaz in Arabia

1925                          Malcolm X (Malcolm Little, El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz; d. 1965), powerful voice and visionary of Nation of Islam, Pan-Africanist, Pan-Islamist, and civil and human rights advocate

1925                          Kemal Atatürk abolishes Ṣūfī orders, closes sacred tombs and shrines, and bans wearing fez in Turkey

1925                          ʿAlī ʿAbd al-Rāziq publishes Islam and the Foundations of Governance, a controversial book denying the connection between Islam and state structures, sparking firestorm of debate and creating context for foundation of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

1925                          Aḥmad Shāmlū, Persian poet (d. 2000)

192-1930:                Rif Rebellion in Morocco as national liberation struggle led by Ṣūfīs

1925-1979:             Pahlavi dynasty in Iran

1926                          Islamic law replaced by Swiss- and Italian-based civil code in Turkey, resulting in completely secular code of law regulating the family

1926                          Central mosque founded in Paris, France

1926                          Nahdatul Ulama established in Indonesia as social organization

1926                          Necmettin Erbakan, prime minister of Turkey and leader of Refâh Partisi (Welfare Party)

1927                          Tablīghī Islām founded by Mawlānā Muḥammad Ilyās as a major movement of Islamic religious renewal

1927                          Turkey adopts Western-inspired family-law code

1927                          Jamʿīat al-Shubbān al-Muslimīn founded as Pan-Islamic Egyptian political association in Cairo

c. 1927                      Mai Tatsine (Muhammadu Marwa; d. 1980), leader of separatist sect in Kano, Nigeria

1927                          Turgut Özal (d. 1993), founder of Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party) and president of Turkey

1927                          Shaykh ʿAbd al-Salām Yāsīn, leader and ideologue of al-ʿAdl wa-al-Iḥṣān in Morocco

1928                          Muslim Brotherhood founded in Egypt by Ḥasan al-Bannā

1928                          Reference to Islam as religion of state eliminated in Turkey

1928                          Mūsā al-Ṣadr (d. c. 1978), Iranian-born Shīʿī cleric, Lebanese politician, and founder of Amal whose disappearance in 1978 made him a contemporary symbol of the Hidden Imam

1928                          Sipihrī (d. 1980), Persian poet and painter

1928                          Mahdī Akhavān-i Salis (d. 1990), Persian poet

1928                          Mohammed Arkoun, Algerian Islamic writer, scholar, and leading intellectu-Frontal assault by Soviet authorities against Islam, including closing and/or destruction of mosques

c. 1930-c. 1939: Egypt, Turkey, and Iran develop own radio broadcasting and use it for national integration, government news and information, and state propaganda and ideology

1930                          Publication of Our Woman in the Sharīʿah and Society by al-Ṭāhir al-Ḥaddād, Tunisian proponent of progressive emancipation of women within framework of Islamic reform

1930                          Nation of Islam founded in Detroit, Michigan, by W. D. Fard

1931                          General Islamic Congress in Jerusalem to galvanize support in Muslim world for national government for Palestine with Arab majority

1931                          Foundation of Association of Algerian ʿUlamāʿ to promote Arab and Islamic roots of Algerian nation and revive and reform Islam

1931                          Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi, pioneer Indian Islamic economic theorist

1931                          Dr. Nawāl al-Saʿdāwī, Egyptian novelist and women’s rights activist

1931                          ʿAbbāsī Madanī, Algerian Islamic activist and political leader

1931                          Muḥammad Bāqir al-Ṣadr (d. 1980), Iraqi Islamic economic theorist

1932                          Kingdom of Saudi Arabia established as the modern state based on the alliance between the theological tradition of Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and political rule by the Saʿūd family

1932                         Khurshid Ahmad, theorist of Islamic economics

1932                          Ḥasan al-Turābī, intellectual, lawyer, and Sudanese political activist

1932                          A. D. Pirous, Indonesian artist known for calligraphy painting and fusion of classical Islamic art forms with contemporary artistic techniques

1933                          Muhammad Umer Chapra, Pakistani Islamic economic theorist

1933                          Shaykh ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd Kishk, popular Egyptian preacher

1933                          Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Iranian philosopher, theologian, and traditionalist

1933                          Louis Farrakhan, leader of Nation of Islam

1933                          ʿAlī Sharīʿatī (d. 1977), a major contributor to the intellectual foundations of the Iranian Revolution of 1979

1933                          Muḥammad Bāqir al-Ṣadr (d. 1980), Shīʿī religious authority, Islamic economist, and founder of Ḥizb al-Daʿwah al-Islāmīyah in Iraq in opposition to Saddam Hussein’s regime, grandfather of Muqtadā al-Ṣadr

c. 1933                      ʿAbd al-Raḥmān Munīf (d. 2004), acclaimed novelist and critic of the effects of the oil industry and modernization on traditional Arab Gulf societies

c. 1934-c. 1936: codification of Iranian Civil Code

1934                          Women receive right to vote and hold office in Turkey

1934                          Neo-Destour party founded in Tunisia, leading drive for independence from France

1934                          Maryam Jameelah, American-Pakistani conservative activist and intellectual

1935                          Furūgh Farrukhzād (d. 1967), Iranian poetess

1935                          Ghulām Ḥusayn Sāʿidī (d. 1985), Persian playwright

1935                          Muslim Brotherhood opens branch in Syria

1935                          Iran establishes secular education beyond elementary school

1935                          Death of Shaykh ʿIzz al-Dīn al-Qassām in Palestine, leader of Palestinian Islamic movement

1935                          Ḥasan Ḥanafī, Egyptian intellectual, reformer, and philosopher

1935                          Muḥammad Ḥusayn Faḍlallāh, Lebanese Shīʿī religious scholar and ideologue of Ḥizbullāh

1935                          Moustapha Akkad (d. 2005), Syrian-American filmmaker and executive producer

1936                          Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, recognizing Egyptian independence from Britain

1936                          Iran outlaws the veil and promulgates liberal family law

1936                          Zaynab al-Ghazālī founds Muslim Women’s Association in Egypt as Islamic response to the Egyptian feminist union

1936                          Prince Karīm al-Ḥusaynī, forty-ninth hereditary imam of the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī Shīʿah and Aga Khan IV

1936                          Zine el Abidine Ben Ali, prime minister of Tunisia

1936                          Layla Baʿlabakkī, Lebanese Shīʿī novelist

1936                          Assia Djebar, award-winning Algerian filmmaker, novelist, poet, and activist for Algerian women’s rights

1936                          Ismail Kadare, Albanian novelist and poet

1936-1939:             Palestinian “Arab Revolt” against British policy in Palestine, led by al-Ḥājj Amīn al-Ḥusaynī, muftī of Jerusalem and president of Supreme Muslim Council in mandatory Palestine

1937                          Death of Abū Shuʿayb al-Dukkālī, early Moroccan Salafī

1937                          Djamila Bouhired, Algerian militant who became symbol of resistance to French colonial rule and activist for women’s rights

1937                          Parvīz Ṣayyād, Iranian playwright and director

1938                          Shaykh Omar Abdel Rahman (the Blind Sheikh), Egyptian religious scholar and spiritual leader of al-Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah and radical Islamists globally; convicted and imprisoned in the United States for conspiracy charges relating to the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City

1938                          Mohammed Abdul Mannan, Bengal-born Pakistani Islamic economic theorist

1938                          Shaykh Imam Muhammad Ashaari al-Tamimi, founder of Darul Arqam movement in Malaysia

1938                          Ismāʿīl Khūʿī, rhetorical poet and voice of Iranian diaspora disillusioned with the Islamic Revolution

1938                          Hūshang Gulshīrī, Persian novelist

1938                          Bahrām Bayzʿāʿī, Persian playwright and cinematographer

1939                          British White Paper appears to accept Palestinian demand for national independence with Arab majority and to restrict Jewish immigration to Palestine as well as sales of land to Jews

1939                          Split between Muslim Brotherhood and Muhammad’s Youth in Egypt caused by internal disputes

1939                          Nurcholish Madjid (d. 2005), Indonesian theologian and theorist of religious pluralism and tolerance

1939                          Saad Eddin Ibrahim, Egyptian activist for democracy and for civil, minority, and human rights

c. 1940-c. 1943: foundation of Arab Socialist Baʿth Party in Syria as Arab nationalist ideology

1940                          Lahore Resolution passed, committing Muslim League to creation of separate Muslim state for Indian Muslims

1940                          Abdurrahman Wahid, president of Indonesia, intellectual, and chairperson of Nahdatul Ulama, the largest Islamic organization in Indonesia

1940                          Fatima Mernissi, Moroccan sociologist and women’s rights activist

1940                          Aḥmad Rizʿā Aḥmadī, Persian painter and poet

1940                          Munīrū Ravānīpūr, leading Persian novelist of feminine consciousness and mythical sensibilities

1940                          Mahshīd Amīrshāhī, leading Persian novelist chronicling feminine consciousness and religious and antisecular turns of the Islamic Revolution

1941                          Jamāʿat-i Islāmī founded in India/Pakistan by Mawlānā Abū al-Aʿlā Mawdūdī

1941                          Religious instruction banned in schools in Iran

1941                          Reign of Muhammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, last shah of Iran

1941                          Rāshid al-Ghannūshī, Tunisian Islamic thinker, activist, and head of En-Nahda, initially called Islamic Tendency Movement (MTI), advocating for pluralism and democracy based on Islam

1942                          Muhammad Ali, world heavyweight boxing champion and American icon of civil rights movement

1942                          Muʿammar al-Qadhdhāfī, Libyan military officer who overthrew King Idrīs I in 1969 and has ruled Libya since

1942                          Shukrī Muṣṭafā (d. 1978), founder of Jamāʿat al-Muslimīn, also known as Takfīr wa-al-Hijrah, Egyptian extremist movement

1942-1943:             creation of “special section” of Muslim Brotherhood as secret apparatus inspired by jihād for the defense of Islam and Egyptian society

1943                          National Pact of Lebanon agreed upon, assuring dominance of Christian Arabs in political process based on numerical superiority in 1932 census; president of country to be Maronite Christian, prime minister Sunnī Muslim, and speaker of chamber of deputies Shīʿī Muslim; other key government positions distributed proportionally along confessional lines; Lebanon wins independence

1943-1962:             Istiqlāl (Independence Party) as leading Moroccan nationalist party, helping to bring end to French and Spanish protectorates

1944                          Ibrahim Rugova (d. 2005), President of Kosovo and proponent of nonviolence recognized as the “Gandhi of the Balkans”

1944-1948:             armed units of Muslim Brotherhood join with Secret Organization of the Free Officers commanded by Gamal Abdel Nasser to oppose Egyptian monarchy

c. 1945—>:             third wave of Muslim immigrants to the United States, composed increasingly of Arabs and South Asians

1945                          Abdolkarim Soroush, Iranian intellectual

1945                          Ḥanān al-Shaykh, Lebanese Shīʿī novelist, short-story writer, and playwright

1945                          Founding of League of Arab States, also known as Arab League

1945                          Indonesia wins independence and enshrines Pancasila (Five Principles), declaring religious pluralism as state policy in new constitution

1945                          Fidāʿīyān-i Islām founded in Tehran as religio-political organization

1945                          Republican party formed in Sudan to oppose establishment of Mahdist monarchy and unification of Sudan with Egypt

1945                          Sudanese Ummah party founded by pro-independence nationalists

1945                          Indonesian constitution ensures rights and equal responsibilities for men and women

1946                          Transjordan wins independence and becomes Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

1946                          Darul Islam founded in Indonesia to work for Islamic state led by imam

1946                          Jamʿīyatul ʿUlamāʿ-i Islām branches off from Jamʿīyatul ʿUlamāʿ-i Hind in India because of latter’s Indian nationalist stance and opposition to creation of separate homeland for Indian Muslims

1946                          Muslim Brotherhood spreads into Palestine

1946                          Founding of United Malays National Organization

1946                          Shahrnūsh Pārsīpūr, leading Persian novelist of feminine consciousness in history and politics

c. 1947                      Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, leader of Ḥizb-i Islāmī Afghānistān and former prime minister who claims to have aided Osama bin Laden’s escape from Afghanistan in 2001

1947                          Anwar Ibrahim, former deputy prime minister of Malaysia and head of ABIM (Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia)

1947                          Shirin Ebadi, Iranian activist for human, women’s, and children’s rights, and winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace

1947                          Shaykh Hasina Wazed, former prime minister of Bangladesh and active advocate for democracy and controversial political leader

1947                          Pakistan founded as state for Muslims of India; state of Jammu and Kashmir becomes disputed territory between India and Pakistan

1947                          UN Resolution 181 passed, recommending partition of Palestine into two states one Arab and one Jewish

1947                          Designation of Hamdard as Islamic waqf for treating illness with herbs

1947                          Prison conversion of Malcolm X to Nation of Islam

1948                          State of Israel declared

1948                          Jordan claims mandate for Jerusalem

1948                          Durrīyah Shafīq founds Daughter of the Nile Association to demand women’s suffrage and literacy

1948                          Jamʿīyatul-ʿUlamāʿ-i Pākistān established as largest Barelwī ʿUlamāʿ party in Pakistan

1948                          Yusuf Islam (formerly Cat Stevens), gold-record-winning popular musician and pioneer of Islamic popular and children’s music

1949                          Religious education reintroduced in Turkish schools as elective course

1949                          Ḥasan al-Bannā assassinated by Egyptian police

1949                          Foundation of Awami League in East Pakistan (later Bangladesh)

1949                          Codification of Egyptian Civil Code

1949                          Attempted assassination of shah of Iran

c. 1950-c. 1953: Ḥujjatīyah founded as conservative religio-political school of thought within Shiism

c. 1950                      Mohammed Jasim al-Ali, managing director of al-Jazeera television network

1950                          Religious education mandatory in Turkish schools unless parents object

1950                          Mevlevî Ṣūfī order permitted to resume ceremonial practices in Turkey

1951                          Idrīs ibn al-Mahdī, grandson of Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī al-Sanūsī, becomes king of newly created Libya, highlighting leadership and nationalistic roles of Sānusīyah ṭarīqah

1951                          Mohammed Mossadegh appointed prime minister of Iran

1951                          Formation of Partai Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS) as independent Islamic political party in Malaysia

1951                          Jordan reforms law of family rights to restrict polygyny and divorce and expand women’s right to divorce on certain grounds

1951                          Queen Noor of Jordan (born Lisa Halaby), internationally acclaimed philanthropist and humanitarian

1952                          Gamal Abdel Nasser and Free Officers seize power in Egypt under banner of pan-Arabism and Arab socialism, supported by shaykhs of al-Azhar; religion restricted to personal status and beliefs

1952                          Dr. Pratiwi Pujiliestari Sudarmono, Indonesian physician and microbiologist selected as Indonesia’s first female Deputy Assistant Minister of State for Science and Technology and astronaut

1952                          Āmina Wadūd-Muḥsin, American Muslim feminist theologian and activist

1953                          Shah of Iran restored to power in coup overthrowing Mossadegh regime with assistance of U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, establishing distrust of the CIA and concerns about potential American imperialism in the Middle East

1953                          Foundation of Ḥizb al-Taḥrīr al-Islāmī in Jerusalem as Islamic political party seeking revival of Islamic caliphate

1953                          Muslim Brotherhood opens branch in Jordan

1953                          Benazir Bhutto, first democratically-elected female Prime Minister of Muslim-majority country

1954                          Muslim Brotherhood founded in Sudan, advocating Islamic political and social order via adoption of Islamic constitution based on the Qurʿān and introduction of Islamic law

1954                          Muslim Brotherhood disbanded by Nasser regime in Egypt following assassination attempt against Nasser

1954                          Federation of Islamic Associations of Canada and the United States (formerly International Muslim Society) founded to maintain ties between scattered Muslim communities

1954                          Algerian war for independence from France

1955                          Mustafa Cerić, Grand Muftī of Bosnia and Herzegovina and internationally recognized leader in Muslim-Christian dialogue

1955                          Hajjah Maria Ulfah, internationally acclaimed Indonesian Qurʿān reciter

1956                          Pakistan adopts constitution declaring itself an Islamic Republic with a Muslim head of state and based upon Islamic principles; Islamic research center deemed necessary for reconstruction of Muslim society on Islamic basis

1956                          Tunisia and Morocco achieve independence from Spain and France

1956                          Tunisia enacts code of personal status granting women right to initiate divorce and banning polygyny, repudiation, forced marriage, and requirement for male guardian to act on behalf of a woman

1956-1972:             Sudan achieves independence, descends into civil war

1957                          Tunisia adopts Law of Personal Status, abolishing polygamy, and grants women right to vote

1957                          Jordanian martial law bans secular political parties, creating opportunity for Muslim Brotherhood to build societal support

1957                          Farid Esack, Muslim liberation theologian and activist in South African struggle to end apartheid

1957                          Ḥizb al-Daʿwah al-Islāmīyah, founded by Muḥammad Bāqir al-Ṣadr, an Islamic Shīʿī activist party that later became a major opponent of regime of Saddam Hussein

1957                          To 1967: Arab “cold war” pitting secularist ideologies, particularly socialism and communism, against Islamic ideologies

c. 1958-1963:         television introduced in multiple Muslim countries

1958                          Nadia Yassine, official spokesperson for Moroccan al-ʿAdl wa-al-Iḥsān (Justice and Charity) Islamist party, the first woman to serve in this capacity in the Arab world

c. 1960-c. 1969: Organization of Islamic Action founded in Karbala, Iraq, as major Shīʿī opposition

 movement to Baʿthist regime

c. 1960-c. 1969: PERKIM (Pertubuhan Kebajikan Islam SeMalaysia, All-Malaysia Muslim Welfare Association), religious and social welfare organization

c. 1960-c. 1969: Nigeria wins independence, some national leaders are descendants of 

founders Sokoto caliphate

1960                          Higher Council of Islamic Affairs founded in Cairo to promote daʿwah (propagation of Islam)

1961                          Muslim Family Laws Ordinance passed in Pakistan to reform traditional sharīʿah

1961                          Israeli Knesset ratifies law stipulating that qāḍīs in Israel must be selected by committee with Muslim majority, appointed by president of Israel, and dispense justice in accordance with Israeli laws

1961                          Foundation of Liberation Movement of Iran

1962                          Algeria wins independence from France and grants women right to vote

1962                          Muslim World League founded in Saudi Arabia

1962                          Kuwait enacts constitution and elected parliament

1962                          United Kingdom Islamic mission founded in London

1962                          Al-Azhar University in Cairo opens college for girls to expand women’s access to advanced religious studies

1962                          End of Zaydī Imamate in Yemen

1962                          To 1972: conflict in Yemen between Zaydī imams in north and Republicans in south

1963                          Women win right to vote in Iran, provoking Ayatollah Khomeini’s active opposition and his arrest

1963                          Clerical opposition to Shah’s government in Iran increases, particularly in Shīʿī educational city of Qom, resulting in government crackdown

1963                          Muslim Students Association of the United States and Canada (MSA) founded by international Muslim students studying in North America

1963                          Baʿth Party seizes power in Syria

1963                          Morocco grants women right to vote

c. 1964                      Foundation of Mujāhidīn-i Khalq, an Iranian religious but anticlerical organization, supporting the Islamic Revolution but quickly becoming part of opposition to the Islamic Republic established by Ayatollah Khomeini

1964                          Pope Paul VI establishes Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions to facilitate Roman Catholic study of other religions and to promote inter-religious dialogue

1964                          Malcolm X converts to orthodox Sunnī Islam

1964                          Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) formed as recognized representative of the Palestinian people

1965                          Crackdown on Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt after Nasser accuses them of plotting to assassinate him

1965                          Foundation of Islamic Pact in Saudi Arabia

1965                          Israeli Succession Law abolishes exclusive jurisdiction of sharīʿah courts in succession matters

1965                          Formation of Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front calling for secular, independent Kashmir

1965                          Assassination of Malcolm X by members of Nation of Islam

1965                          Zaytūnah in Tunisia abolished as independent educational institution and absorbed into University of Tunis as School of Theology and Islamic Studies

1966                          Execution of Sayyid Quṭb — prominent writer for Muslim Brotherhood who gave movement radical, militant tone — by Nasser in Egypt

1966                          International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations founded as world federation of Muslim student organizations

1966                          Singapore’s Administration of Muslim Law Act permits Malay custom to modify application of Islamic law

1966-1976:             Cultural Revolution in China leads to Muslims becoming focus of anti-religious and anti-ethnic nationalist criticism, resulting in widespread persecution of Muslims and closure of mosques

1967                          Six Day (or June) War between Arabs and Israelis—Israel captures Jerusalem, occupies remaining twenty percent of Palestinian lands, Sinai peninsula, and Golan Heights and routs Arab forces, leading to Arab disillusionment with secular policies like nationalism and socialism and sparking Islamic revival

1967                          Aga Khan Foundation established as private, nondenominational, philanthropic international-development agency

1967                          Iranian Family Protection Act supplants sharīʿah in family law

1968                          Darul Arqam founded in Malaysia as voluntary, nongovernmental, grassroots Islamic daʿwah movement

1968                          Saddam Hussein comes to power in Iraq in Baʿth Revolution

1968                          Patani United Liberation Organization founded in Thailand as Muslim separatist organization

1969                          Muʿammar al-Qadhdhāfī seizes power in Libya, later implementing own version of Islamic state as “Third Universal Alternative”

1969                          Jaʿfar Nimeiri seizes power in Sudan

1969                          Minbar (pulpit) in al-Aqṣā Mosque in Jerusalem burned, leading King Fayṣal of Saudi Arabia to call for jihād against Israel and to organize an Islamic summit conference combining pan-Islamism with Arabism

1969                          Moro National Liberation Front founded in the Philippines

1969                          Republican party in Sudan changes name to Republican Brothers or New Islamic Mission and advocates new understanding of Islam to address contemporary personal and world problems, as well as modern, rational- scientific concerns

1969                          Ethnic riots in Malaysia

1969                          Ayatollah Khomeini introduces concept of vilāyat-i faqīh (rule of the jurist) on which the Islamic Republic of Iran is later founded

c. 1970-c. 1979: emerging widespread use of cassette tapes for messages of political dissidence and religious discourse outside of official channels

1970                          Series of skyjackings by Palestinian militants to bring attention to Palestinian nationalist demands, sparks Black September clashes between Jordanian army and Palestinian commandos

1970-1971:             Pakistan civil war results in declaration of independent state of Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan)

1970-1977:             Zulfiqar ʿAli Bhutto prime minister of Pakistan, marking period of constitution and compromise with Islamic groups

1971                          Organization of the Islamic Conference founded — first official pan-Islamic institution for cooperation among Islamic governments

1971                          Libya adopts sharīʿah

1971                          Kareem Abdul-Jabbar becomes first Muslim American to be named Most Valuable Player by the National Basketball Association (NBA) and to win an NBA championship

1971                          Mujāhidīn-i Khalq launches guerrilla struggle against the Shah’s regime in Iran

1972                          National Salvation Party founded in Turkey by Necmettin Erbakan with goal of Islamic state and Islamization of Turkish life

1972                          ABIM (Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia, or Malaysian League of Muslim Youth) founded in Malaysia as mission movement and political party, rejecting capitalism and socialism and promoting Islam as an alternative political and economic system

1972                          Council of Muslim Communities founded in Canada

1972                          World Assembly of Muslim Youth (WAMY) established in Saudi Arabia

1972                          Islamic Call Society founded in Libya to carry out missionary work

1972                          Violence between Muslims and Christians erupts in the Philippines, leading to declaration of martial law

1972                          Palestinian militants slaughter Israeli athletes at Olympics in Munich, Germany, to gain recognition for Palestinian nationalism

1973                          “Operation Badr” or October War between Arabs and Israel, with Egypt recovering some of territory lost to Israel in 1967 war

1973                          Arab oil embargo against West enhances Arab’s economic power in world affairs

1973                          Islamic Development Bank founded

1973                          Islamic Council of Europe established to address status of Muslim minorities

1973                          Süleymanlı movement begins to found Islamic Cultural Centers in Germany to organize labor migrants from Turkey and meet their religious needs

1973                          Islamic Foundation established to encourage research into implementation of Islam in modern world, project image of Islam in Europe, and meet educational needs of Muslims

1973                          Libyan dictator Muʿammar al-Qadhdhāfī publishes The Green Book, outlining his “Third Universal Theory” defining sociopolitical system based on Islam

1973                          Syria declares secular constitution

1973                          Partai Persatuan Pembangunan founded as Islamic political party in Indonesia

1974                          Mūsā al-Ṣadr founds Movement of the Disinherited, a populist movement for social and political reform in Lebanon favoring redistribution of power and resources to benefit the generally marginalized Shīʿī community; militant wing develops into Amal

1974                          Islamic Solidarity Fund established

1974                          Belgium officially recognizes Islam, opening door to Islamic religious activities receiving financial aid

1975                          Outbreak of civil war in Lebanon, resulting in radicalization of Shīʿī population

1975                          Foundation of Amal as Lebanese Shīʿī populist movement

1975                          Foundation of Australian Federation of Islamic Councils as national organization overseeing Muslim associations and councils

1975                          Foundation of Dubai Islamic Bank

1975                          World Council of Mosques established as counterpart to World Council of Churches

1975                          Foundation of Indonesian Council of Ulama

1975                          Foundation of Ḥizb-i Islāmī Afghānistān as Islamic resistance movement

1975                          Death of Elijah Muhammad and the succession of his son, Imam Warith Deen Muhammad (Wallace Deen Muhammad) leads to transformation of Nation of Islam into more normative Islamic movement; Louis Farrakhan breaks off to continue hardcore black-nationalist tendencies and retains name Nation of Islam

1975                          Foundation of Islamic Development Bank by the Organization of the Islamic Conference

1975                          Family Protection Act in Iran requires a man wishing to take a second wife to seek permission of both court and first wife or to prove first wife unwilling or unable to fulfill conjugal responsibilities

1975                          Major demonstrations in Qom against Shah’s regime

1975-1990:             Lebanese civil war

1976                          King Faisal Foundation established to promote charitable work, research, and Islamic studies

1977                          Zulfikar ʿAli Bhutto’s government in Pakistan ousted by General Zia ul-Haq, who introduces Islamization

1977                          Aga Khan Award for Architecture established to stimulate concern for the contemporary built environment while drawing upon the historic resources of Islamic culture

1977                          Foundation of Faysal Islamic Banks in Egypt and Sudan and Kuwait Finance House

1977                          Central Mosque and Islamic Cultural Centre opened in London, England

1977                          Egyptian president Anwar el-Sadat visits Jerusalem

1977                          Islamic Chamber of Commerce established by Organization of the Islamic Conference to promote trade, industry, and agriculture, and commercial and financial cooperation throughout the Islamic world

1977                          Philippines adopts Code of Muslim Personal Laws and establishes new sharīʿah courts to apply it

1978                          Disappearance of Mūsā al-Ṣadr, leader of activist Shīʿī group in Lebanon, during trip to Libya, giving him popular “Hidden Imam” status among Shīʿah of Lebanon

1978                          Israel invades Lebanon

1978                          Pakistan announces creation of sharīʿah courts

1978                          Signing of Camp David Accords, establishing “cold peace” between Egypt and Israel

1978                          Foundation of Jordan Islamic Bank

1978                          Israeli Arabs using Israeli passports given right to perform the Ḥajj

1978                          First komitehs established in Iran by students and youth as neighborhood-defense units against government-backed attackers of those protesting Shah’s regime

1978                          Labor Party founded in Egypt as only legal Islamist party

1978                          Communist coup in Afghanistan creates circumstances opening the door to the

Soviet invasion of 1979

1978                          Council of Masajid of the United States established by representatives of the Muslim World League

1978-1979:             Iranian Revolution — Islamic Republic of Iran founded, Shah abdicates and goes into exile

1979                          American Embassy in Tehran seized by militant supporters of Khomeini protesting U.S. ties to Shah, Sipāh-i Pāsdārān-i Inqilāb- Islāmī (Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps) established to protect revolution

1979                          Seizure of Grand Mosque of Mecca by militants led by Juhaymān al-ʿUtaybī and Muḥammad al-Qaḥṭānī (declared the Mahdī) in Saudi Arabia

1979                          Shīʿī riots in Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, calling for fairer distribution of oil wealth and services

1979                          Soviet Union invades Afghanistan, sparking ten-year war resulting in collapse of Afghan society and bringing mujahidīn to power

1979                          Pakistani Abdus-Salam becomes first Muslim to win the Nobel Prize for science in shared award for physics

1979                          Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand founded to coordinate and provide domestic and international services for Muslims

1979                          Foundation of Bahrain Islamic Bank

1979                          Pakistan implements Hudood Ordinances as part of Islamization of politics and former Prime Minister Zulfikar ʿAli Bhutto is executed by military regime

1979                          Groupement Islamique en France founded to expand Islamic preaching to immigrant workers

1979                          Iranian Ḥizbullāh founded

1979                          Islamic Jihād Community formed in Egypt by Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Salām Faraj

c. 1980-c. 1983: foundation of Ḥarakāt al-Tawḥīd al-Islāmīyah as militant Sunnī movement in

  Lebanon

1980                          Islamic Jihād founded in Palestine by Muslim Brotherhood

1980                          First Aga Khan Award for Architecture, largest architectural prize in the world, for architectural and urban projects serving Muslim communities

1980                          Abol-Hasan Bani Sadr elected first president of Iran

1980                          Regional Islamic Daʿwah Council of Southeast Asia and the Pacific (RISEAP) formed

1980-1988:             Iran-Iraq War

1981                          October 4: Anwar el-Sadat of Egypt assassinated by militant Tanẓīm al-Jihād

1981                          Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia cracks down on Tunisia’s Islamic Tendency movement founded same year

1981                          American Embassy hostages freed by Iran after 444 days in captivity

1981                          Iranian President Bani Sadr removed by Ayatollah Khomeini

1981                          Headquarters of Islamic Republican Party in Tehran bombed

1981                          Women’s action forum founded in Pakistan in response to implementation of Islamic penal code

1981-1985:             Iran’s “Reign of Terror”

1982                          Hafez al-Asad of Syria levels city of Hama to put down opposition movement led by Muslim Brotherhood

1982                          Israel invades southern Lebanon for second time

1982                          Massacre of inhabitants in Palestinian camps of Sabra and Shatilla in Lebanon

1982                          World Council for Islamic Call founded in Libya as mouthpiece for “Third Theory” of Muʿammar al-Qadhdhāfī

1982                          Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq founded in Iran as Shīʿī opposition movement to Saddam Hussein regime

1982                          Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) formed as umbrella organization for Muslim professional groups

1982                          Ḥizbullāh organization established in Lebanon

1983                          September Laws passed in Sudan for implementation of sharīʿah

1983                          Commission established by Gulf states to study and develop unified code of sharīʿah

1983                          Bombing of U.S. Embassy and U.S. Marine and French peacekeeping barracks in Lebanon, leading to U.S. withdrawal and strengthening of radical militias like Ḥizbullāh

1983                          Beginning of hostage-taking of Americans and Europeans by Organization of the Islamic Jihād

1983                          Union des Organisations Islamiques de France founded as umbrella organization for Islamization

1983                          Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs incorporated in London as independent body studying conditions of life for Muslim minority communities globally

1983                          International Islamic University at Kuala Lumpur founded in Malaysia

1983                          Second civil war in Sudan

1983                          Refâh Partisi, Turkish Islamist party also known as Welfare Party, founded as heir to National Order Party (MNP) and National Salvation Party (MSP)

1983                          Council of Masajid of Canada established

1984                          Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLML) founded as network to facilitate contacts between women internationally

1984                          Muslim Brotherhood permitted to participate in Egyptian elections

1984                          Ḥizbullāh hijacks Kuwaiti airliner to win freedom for Lebanese Shīʿī prisoners held in Kuwait

1984                          Nawal El Mouawakel-Bennis becomes the first Arab and Muslim woman, as well as the first Moroccan athlete, to win an Olympic gold medal

1985                          Prince Sulṭān bin Salmān bin ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Āl Saʿūd becomes first Muslim and Arab astronaut, flying with Discovery space shuttle mission

1985                          Foundation of Aga Khan University as center for higher education and research on health-care needs of developing world

1985                          Israel withdraws from most of Lebanon, remaining in “security perimeter”

1985                          Foundation of Federation Nationale des Musulmans de France to facilitate practice of Islam in France

1985                          Ḥizbullāh hijacks U.S. airliner to demand that Israel free Lebanese Shīʿī prisoners

1985                          International Islamic University at Islamabad founded in Pakistan as central institution for the coordination of Islamization

1985                          Execution in Sudan of Islamic intellectual, Maḥmūd Muḥammad Ṭāhā, for apostasy

1986                          RISEAP establishes women’s movement with goal of alleviating suffering of Muslims by focusing on families

1987                          Crackdown on Tunisia’s Islamic Tendency Movement by Habib Bourguiba government

1987                          Intifāḍah declared in Palestine

1987                          Ḥamās founded at beginning of Palestinian intifāḍah as organization in the tradition of the Muslim Brotherhood but taking a more activist Islamist role in anti-Israeli resistance

1987                          Muslim Brotherhood permitted to participate in Egyptian elections

1987                          Qazʿī Ḥusayn Aḥmad becomes amir of Jamāʿat-i Islāmī in Pakistan

1987                          National Islamic Front publishes its charter in Sudan, explaining its Islamization program

1988                          Death of Pakistani dictator Zia ul-Haq in plane crash leads to establishment of democracy in Pakistan

1988                          Benazir Bhutto elected prime minister of Pakistan, first elected female head of state in Muslim world

1988                          MTI (Mouvement de la Tendance Islamique) becomes Tunisia’s leading opposition group, performing impressively in national elections, changes name to Ḥizb al-Nahḍah (Renaissance Party)

1988                          Naguib Mahfouz becomes first Muslim and first Arab to win the Nobel Prize for Literature

1989                          Death fatwā issued by Khomeini against Salman Rushdie and his publishers who were aware of the book’s content for committing blasphemy and apostasy in The Satanic Verses

1989                          Death of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, first ruler of Islamic Republic of Iran and author of doctrine of vilāyat-i faqīh; Ayatollah Sayyed ʿAlī Khameneʿi succeeds Khomeini as faqīh

1989                          Hāshimī Rafsanjānī elected president of Iran

1989                          Lieutenant-General ʿUmar al-Bashīr seizes power in Sudan—tied to National Islamic Front

1989                          Tunisia refuses to allow Nahḍah Party (formerly MTI, Mouvement de la Tendance Islamique) to participate in elections in order to limit opposition to new government of Ben Ali

1989                          Liberation of Afghanistan from occupation by Soviet Union, largely due to efforts of mujahidīn

1989                          Taʿif Accord brings end to Lebanese civil war

1989                          Foundation of Conseil National des Français Musulmans (CNFM)

1989                          Islamic representatives participate in Israeli municipal elections and win nearly thirty percent of total seats

1989                          Jordan lifts martial law and grants political freedom to all parties; subsequent parliamentary elections result in Islamists winning forty percent of seats in lower house

c. 1989                      Establishment of Al-Khoei Benevolent Foundation as humanitarian and Islamic educational organization

c. 1989-1992:         series of terrorist attacks by Kurdish rebels in Turkey in quest to win independence for Kurdistan

1990                          Islamists win thirty-two of eighty seats in Jordanian Parliament, and a member of Muslim Brotherhood is elected Speaker of national parliament

1990                          FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) wins municipal and communal elections in Algeria, coming to power through democratic process, rather than revolution

1990                          Conseil Religieux de l’Islam en France (CORIF) founded in France to represent French Muslims to the government

1990                          Organization of the Islamic Conference issues Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam

1990                          Emergence of Islamic Renaissance Party in the Soviet Union under Tatar Islamic leadership

1990                          Assassination of Egyptian People’s Assembly speaker Rifʿat al-Maḥjūb, said to have been ordered by Shaykh Omar Abdel Rahman and blamed on Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah

1990                          Group of Saudi women stages public demonstration to protest ban on women driving in Saudi Arabia

1990-1991:             First Persian Gulf War results from Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in August 1990

1991                          FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) wins parliamentary elections in Algeria and is poised to take leadership of country

1991                          Right of religious worship restored to Albania, including first legal Muslim prayer service since Albania was declared an officially atheistic state in 1967

1991                          Amal disarms in Lebanon

1991                          Collapse of Soviet Union

1991                          Last American and British hostages held by Ḥizbullāh freed

1991                          Sectarian violence between Muslims and Christians erupts in several cities in Upper Egypt, blamed on Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah

1991                          Leading Jordanian Muslim Brotherhood figure asked to form cabinet, resulting in Muslim Brotherhood heading ministries of education, social services, and justice

1991                          Peace negotiations for Israeli-Palestinian conflict begin in Madrid

1991                          United States encourages popular uprising against Saddam Hussein regime in Iraq, but abandons it

1991                          Khaleda Zia becomes first female prime minister of Bangladesh

1992                          Iranian elections place conservatives in control of parliament, marginalizing hard-liners and paving way for limited liberalization of political participation and dissent

1992                          All mosques in Egypt placed under government control under anti-terrorism law

1992                          Military prevents FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) from taking power in Algeria, cancelling results of democratic parliamentary elections

1992                          Algerian government crackdown on FIS, leading to civil war which claimed over 100,000 lives in the following decade

1992                          Death of Ayatollah Abol-Qāsem al-Khoʿi, marjaʿ al-taqlīd for the majority of Shīʿī Muslims and benefactor of the Al-Khoei Benevolent Foundation

1992                          Destruction of Bābarī Masjid mosque near Lucknow, India, by Hindu extremists

1992                          Ḥizbullāh participates in first Lebanese elections in twenty years, sweeping Shīʿī vote and winning eight parliamentary seats

1992                          Islamic coalition government founded in Afghanistan

1992                          Last German hostages held by Ḥizbullāh freed

1992                          Spain officially recognizes Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Judaism, and Islam as religions enjoying religious liberty and cooperative relationship with state

1992                          Assassination of Egyptian liberal author Faraj Fawdah, said to have been ordered by Shaykh Omer Abdel Rahman and blamed on Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah

1992                          Hassiba Boulmerka becomes first Algerian and second Arab Muslim woman to win an Olympic gold medal and first Arab and African woman to win a world track championship

1992                          Outbreak of civil war between Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia, with the use of rape as weapon of war and ethnic cleansing of Bosnian Muslims

1992                          Pakistan wins World Cup in cricket for the first time

1992                          Saudi Arabia establishes Majlis al-Shūrā as consultative council with appointed membership

1992                          Release of internationally acclaimed film, Malcolm X, by Spike Lee

1993                          February 26: bombing of World Trade Center in New York City, tied to Shaykh Omer Abdel Rahman and Ramzi Yousef

1993                          Anwar Ibrahim becomes Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia

1993                          Oslo Accords agreed upon as first step to resolution of Israeli-Palestinian conflict

1993                          Bahrain establishes advisory council comprised of both Shīʿah and Sunnīs

1993                          Pakistan holds elections in which Jamāʿat-i Islāmī is permitted to participate

1993                          Jordan holds elections in which Islamic Action Front participates

1993                          Islamic representatives increase power in Israeli municipal elections

1993                          Muslim Brotherhood remains largest single organized bloc following Jordanian parliamentary elections, but loses some seats because of changes in election laws and public views

1993                          Tansu Çiller becomes first female prime minister of Turkey

1994                          February 25: Baruch Goldstein (Jewish settler) kills twenty-nine worshippers at Mosque of the Patriarch in Hebron, provoking suicide bombings by Qassām Brigade (military wing of Ḥamās)

1994                          Taliban, composed of religious leaders and students, appears in Afghanistan, claiming mantle of moral leadership and ending civil war

1994                          Refâh (Welfare) Party wins mayoral elections in more than a dozen major cities in Turkey, including Ankara and Istanbul

1994                          Oussama Cherribi becomes first Muslim elected to Dutch parliament

1994                          Nigerian-American Hakeem Olajuwon becomes the only player in NBA history to win an NBA Championship, Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award, and NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award si                Refâh (Welfare) Party wins enough seats in National Assembly to make its leader, Necmettin Erbakan, Turkey’s first Islamist prime minister

1996                          Al-Jazeera launched with 6-hour news coverage

1997                          Aʿẓam Ṭāliqānī becomes first Iranian woman to declare herself a candidate for presidency

1997                          Mohammad Khatami elected president of Iran, opening door to United States for cultural, scholarly, and economic exchanges

1997                          Algeria resumed parliamentary elections, although FIS (Islamic Salvation Front) barred from participating; alternative Islamic movement MSP (Movement of Society for Peace) wins second highest number of votes

1997                          November 17: terrorist attack against tourists in Luxor, Egypt

1998                          Refâh Party in Turkey declared unconstitutional and banned from political activity; assets seized by state

1998                          Deputy Prime Minister and leader of ABIM, Anwar Ibrahim, removed from power in Malaysia

1998                          Bangladeshi-born Baroness Pola Manzila Uddin becomes first Muslim and first Asian woman to serve in the British House of Lords

1998                          Led by Muslim captain Zinedine Zidane, France wins the World Cup in soccer for the first time

1999                          Egyptian-American Ahmed Zewail wins Nobel Prize for Chemistry, becoming first Arab, first Egyptian, first African, and second Muslim to win a Nobel in a scientific discipline

1999                          Bangladeshi-American M. Osman Siddique becomes first Muslim to be appointed as a U.S. Ambassador

1999                          October: Abdurrahman Wahid becomes first elected president of Indonesia

1999                          Al-Jazeera expands to 24-hour news coverage and broadcasts first interview with Osama bin Laden

1999                          Shaykhah Fāṭimah bint Mubārak is awarded the Marie Curie Medal from UNESCO for her work in eradicating illiteracy and spreading education, particularly among women, in the United Arab Emirates

1999                          Merve Kavakçı sparks debate about religious freedom in Turkey when she is prevented from taking her seat in the Turkish parliament because she is wearing a headscarf

2000                          October 12: terrorist attack on USS Cole, attributed to al-Qaʿida

2000                          Iranian filmmaker Samīrā Makhmalbāf wins the Jury Prize at Cannes Film Festival for The} Blackboard, becoming the youngest film director ever to do so

2001                          Thoraya Ahmed Obaid appointed Under-Secretary General of the United Nations and Executive Director of the United Nations Population Fund, the first Saudi Arabian national to head a UN agency

2001                          Afghan-English journalist Saira Shah films award-winning documentary, Beneath the Veil, exposing the life of women under Taliban rule

2001                          September 1: U.S. Postal Service releases “Eid Greetings” stamp designed by American master Islamic calligrapher Mohamed Zakariya; the first 75 million stamps sell out, earning the stamp a place in the permanent collection

2001                          September 11: 9/11 attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., inspired by al-Qaʿida and planned by Khālid Shaykh Muḥammad

2001                          U.S. begins retaliatory bombing campaign in Afghanistan to root out Osama bin Laden, al]Qaʿida leadership, and the Taliban

2001                          Azizah magazine founded as first American magazine published by and for Muslim women in order to reshape image of Muslim women in the media

2002                          October 12: terrorist attack on nightclub in Bali, Indonesia, attributed to Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah

2002                          Yaphett El-Amin becomes first American Muslim woman elected to serve in state

                                    government and as legislator for state of Missouri

2002                          Fatima Jibrell becomes first Muslim woman to win the Goldman Environmental Prize for her work to end environmental and political destruction in Somalia by empowering women and youth

2002                          Algerian-born Dr. Elias Adam Zerhouni becomes first Arab-American and first American Muslim to serve as head of the National Institutes of Health (NIH)

2002                          June 19; Afghanistan holds first loya jirga since the fall of the Taliban, electing “Hamid Karzai as president

2003                          March: United States invades Iraq and overthrows Saddam Hussein regime

2003                          August 5: Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah terrorist attacks on the J. W. Marriott Hotel in Bali, Indonesia

2003                          Iranian attorney, former judge, and activist for women’s and children’s rights, Shirin Ebadi, wins Nobel Prize for Peace — first Nobel Prize won by a Muslim woman or Iranian

2003                          Tahany El Gebaly becomes first female judge appointed to the Egyptian Supreme Constitutional Court

2004                          March 11: terrorist attack in Madrid, Spain by al-Qaʿida affiliates

2004                          April 17: Israel assassinates Dr. ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Rantīsī, head of Ḥamās

2004                          September 9: Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah terrorist attack against the Australian Embassy in Bali, Indonesia

2004                          Saudi Arabia holds first municipal elections

2005                          July 7: 7/7 attacks on London transit system

2005                          October 1: Jamāʿat al-Islāmīyah engages in triple suicide bombings of restaurants in Bali, Indonesia

2006                          Muḥammad Yūnus, founder of microcredit Grameen Bank, wins Nobel Prize for Peace

2006                          ]Israeli-Ḥizbullāh war results in Israeli withdrawal and ideological victory for Ḥizbullāh

2006                          Ḥamās comes to power over Palestinian territories following election victory, resulting in cutting of financial aid to Palestinians from Europe and the United States

2006                          June 7: Abū Mūṣʿab al-Zarqāwī, leader of al-Qaʿida in Iraq, killed by U.S. forces

2006                          Keith Ellison becomes first Muslim American to be elected to the House of Representatives, representing the state of Minnesota

2006                          December 29: Saddam Hussein hanged in Baghdad

2007                          Lebanese army launches attacks on Nahr el-Bared, a Palestinian refugee camp in northern Lebanon

2007                          Rachida Dati becomes first Muslim female minister of justice in France

2007                          December 27: Benazir Bhutto, former Pakistani prime minister, murdered in Pakistan after returning from political exile

2008                          February 17: Kosovo declares its independence from Serbia, receiving recognition from the United States, the United Kingdom, and several European countries

2008                          King ʿAbdullah of Saudi Arabia convenes a conference in Mecca of major Muslim leaders to consider issues of inter-religious dialogue

2008                          Pervez Musharraf resigns as president of Pakistan, opening the way for restoration of civilian government

2008                          November 26–29. Terrorists take over luxury hotels and other locations in Mumbai, India, resulting in nearly 200 deaths and hundreds of people injured. Lashkar-i-Tayyiba, a Pakistan-based terrorist organization, was accused of organizing the attacks

Chronology Of Islam

150 – 002

https://discerning-Islam.org

Last Update: 02/2021

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